What are the two consequences of an increases in osmolarity of the extracellular fluid?

What hormone is released from the posterior pituitary in response to plasma omsolarity changes?

How is a rise in plasma osmolarity detected?

What action do osmoreceptors take to respond to osmolarity changes?

What effect does excess fluid have on body fluid osmolarity?

At normal plasma osmolarity, is there any ADH in the blood?

What effect will an increase in osmolarity have on level of ADH?

What effect will a decreases in osmolarity have on circulating levels of ADH?

What effect does an increases in ADH have on urine production?

What part of the nephron does ADH have an effect on?

What other change within the body can stimulate the release of ADH?

How does an increase in ADH work to return blood pressure to normal levels?

At what percentage decrease of blood pressure does it become a strong stimulus for ADH secretion?

Which factor, osmolarity changes and blood pressure changes, acts as a more effective stimulus for ADH response?

At levels that are higher than needed to concentrate urine, what effect does ADH also have?

What two factors together allow the ECF to be diluted to lower osmolarity?

What does a change in ADH levels actually affect on a cellular structure level?

What time frame does ADH respond within to changes in osmolarity?

What is the half life for ADH within the blood?

What happens to the ADH to be removed from circulation?

What substance found in cigarettes affects ADH release?

How does diabetes insipidus affect ADH release?

What is the most important extracellular ion in terms of regulation of osmolarity?

What system would be affected if total Sodium levels weren't regulated but osmolarity was maintained?

What percentage of the ECF osmolarity is made up by Sodium ions?

What Sodium levels must be equalised to maintain a stable ECF volume?

What is the only body fluid that can be acted upon to regulate the volume and composition of ECF?

What hormone is the most important determinant of renal Na+ reabsorption?

Where is Aldosterone produced?

What effect does Aldosterone have?

What ions does Aldosterone promote the secretion of?

Besides from the distal tubule and collecting ducts, where else does Aldosterone promote Na+ reabsorption from?

What overall effect does Aldosterone have on body fluid volume?

What change in ionic composition of the plasma stimulates Aldosterone release?

What are the two most important changes within the body that stimulate Aldosterone release?

Via what system does a decrease in effective circulatory volume lead to an increase in Aldosterone levels?

What enzyme is produced by the juxtaglomerular apparatus when body Na+ is reduced?

What change in arterial blood pressure also induces the release of renin?

What effect does Angiotensin II have on reabsorption?

How can sympathetic activity have an effect on Angiotensin II?

Angiotensin II prioritises the perfusion of which organs?

What action does Angiotensin II have on afferent and efferent arterioles?

How does arteriolar constriction lead to increased reabsorption?

What is the only way in which Angiotensin II can actually increase Na+ content?

What enzyme, found in the endothelial cells of the lung, converts Angiotensin ! to Angiotensin II?

What treatment can be given for high blood pressure?

What centre in the hypothalamus is also stimulated by Angiotensin II?

What substances are synthesised and released from cardiac atrial cells?

What are ANP's released in response to?

What effect do ANP's have on Sodium and ECF volume?

ANP's inhibit the production of which hormone involved in Sodium regulation?

What action do ANP's have on afferent arterioles and what effect does this have in the kidney?

Which ionic exchange is increased by Angiotensin II and where does this take place?

How does Angiotensin II affect the GFR?

What effect does an increase in sympathetic activity have on Sodium filtration?

Where in the nephron do osmotic diuretics act on?

What do Thiazide diuretics do and where do they have an effect within the nephron?

What do Loop diuretics do?

Where in the nephron do K+ sparing diuretics and Na+ channel blockers have an effect?

What hormone is produced in the kidney that stimulates red blood cell production?

What is micturition?

How does urine composition change once it leaves the renal pelvis?

How is urine transported from the kidneys to the bladder?

What sphincter is involuntarily controlled and keeps the entrance to the urethra closed?

What autonomic activity causes the internal sphincter to remain closed?

What form of innervation is responsible for keeping the external sphincter closed?

How is a change in bladder volume detected?

What happens to sensory neurones as the bladder fills?

What does an increase in parasympathetic activity have within the bladder?

As the contractions and pressure in the bladder increases, what eventually happens?

What is reflex emptying of the bladder an example of?

What does urine flow out of the bladder stimulate?

Where in the brain does voluntary suppression of urination originate from?

In newborn and untrained animals, what is urination a result of?