Which researcher investigated coding in LTM and STM and when?
Miller, 1956
Baddeley, 1966
Bahrick, 1975
Name one disadvantage of Baddeley's coding study.
Culture bias
Too old to generalise nowadays
Artificial stimuli
What is the correct capacity, coding, and duration of STM?
3-6 items, semantic, 10 seconds
5-9 items, acoustic, 30 seconds
5-9 items, semantic, 18 seconds
What is the correct capacity, coding and duration of LTM?
Very small, acoustic, 45 minutes
Unlimited, acoustic, 7 years
Unlimited, semantic, permanent
Which researcher investigated capacity in STM and when?
Jacobs, 1887
Name one disadvantage of Jacobs' capacity study.
Can't be generalised.
Confounding variables due to era.
Cultural bias- he only tested the memory of women
Which researcher developed Jacobs' capacity results and when?
Name one disadvantage of Miller's capacity study.
Lacks internal validity
Can't be generalised
Contradictory evidence.
Which researcher investigated the duration of LTM and when?
Name one advantage of Bahrick's duration study.
It had a small sample, so the research was focused and detailed.
Lacks participant variables.
Has high external validity.
Which researcher investigated the duration of STM and when?
Peterson and Peterson, 1959
Name one disadvantage of Peterson and Peterson's duration study.
Suffered gender bias- only studied men
Meaningless stimuli.
Can't be generalised to different cultures.
Label the Multi-Store Memory Model
Name two sensory stores in the sensory register.
Iconic
Semantic
Etic
Echoic
Acoustic
Name one advantage of the multi-store model of memory.
Clearly shows how STM and LTM are unitary stores
Research used to investigate the MSM included meaningful stimuli, hence increasing the validity
Supporting research evidence
Name three disadvantages of the multi-store model of memory.
Suggests STM and LTM are unitary stores
Doesn't account for elaborative rehearsal
Difficult to generalise to other cultures
Research used artificial materials
There are 4 types of long term memory
Episodic memory refers to our ability to . They are and include . As well as this, they require to recall.
Name an example of episodic memory
Tom can remember last week when he played football with his dad at the park.
Mary can remember how to ride her bike.
Alex can remember the taste of an orange.
Name an example of semantic memory.
Mary can remember going her friends house 3 weeks ago.
Tom can remember how to play football.
Alex can remember the meaning of the word 'memory'.
Procedural memory refers to . These memories aren't , and require no .
Endel ❌ (❌) realised the multi-store model was too simplistic and that LTM wasn't a ❌. He believed there were ❌ separate LTM stores: episodic, semantic and procedural.
Name three advantages of Tulving's three LTM stores.
Generalises well to other cultures.
Clinical evidence- Clive Wearing.
Neuro-imaging evidence- brain scans.
High internal validity to study.
Real life application.
Name two disadvantages of Tulving's three LTM stores.
Can't be easily generalised to other cultures.
Lack of control in case studies.
May be two types, not three.
Lacked internal validity.
- coordinates activities of subsystems and allocates resources./. - memory store for visual and spatial information./. - memory store for auditory information./. - store which integrates all information into a single memory with time sequencing.
Define phonological store.
Memory store for scent information.
Store for the words you hear.
Store which allows rehearsal of words.
Define articulatory loop.
Store for olfactory information.
Store which allows 2 second maintenance rehearsal of words.
Name four advantages of the working memory model.
Clinical evidence
Dual task performance support.
Clarity in all aspects.
Word length effect evidence.
Research into drug users evidence
Brain scan evidence.
Name a disadvantage of the working memory model.
Lack of research for phonological loop.
Lacks internal validity.
Difficult to generalise to other cultures.
Lacks clarity over central executive.
Define interference
When two pieces of information conflict, resulting in forgetting/distorting of one or both
When there are insufficient cues to trigger a memory
When someone talks to you when you're trying to remember something
Retroactive interference: newer older( newer, older ) memory interferes with older newer( older, newer ) memory e.g. teacher can't remember previous current( previous, current ) class' names Proactive interference: older newer( older, newer ) memory interferes with newer older( newer, older ) memory e.g. teacher can't remember current previous( current, previous ) class' names
Which researcher investigated how similarity affects retroactive interference and when?
McGeoch and McDonald, 1931
The word type which produced the worst recall in McGeoch and McDonald's retroactive study was synonyms antonyms nonsense syllables 3-digit numbers no new list unrelated words( synonyms, antonyms, nonsense syllables, 3-digit numbers, no new list, unrelated words ).
Name two advantages of the interference explanation for forgetting
Lab studies have good validity
Meaningful stimuli
Real-life study support
High internal validity
Name two disadvantages of the interference explanation for forgetting
Researcher bias
Demand characteristics
Unrealistic time between learning
Retrieval Failure: an explanation for forgetting that suggests that insufficient cues sufficient cues disruptive memories lack of intelligence( insufficient cues, sufficient cues, disruptive memories, lack of intelligence ) cause information to be forgotten. These cues can be state context food envionment location( state, context, food, envionment, location ) dependent (internal, e.g. drunk, tired) or context state environment drug( context, state, environment, drug ) dependent (external, e.g. location)
❌ (❌) suggested the ❌ Specificity Principle (ESP). This indicates that cues must be ❌ and ❌ in order for them to be sufficient. Some cues are linked to material in a ❌ way e.g.' STM' helps us recall information about short term memory. Other cues are not so obvious: either context (external) or state (internal) dependent.
Baddeley Tulving McGeoch Peterson and Peterson( Baddeley, Tulving, McGeoch, Peterson and Peterson ) (1975 1985 1983 1931( 1975, 1985, 1983, 1931 )) conducted a study deep sea divers based on context state( context, state ) dependent forgetting. They learned words either in/out of the sea and then recalled them either in/out of the sea. When the environmental contexts matched (e.g. sea - sea, land - land) the recall was better worse the same( better, worse, the same ).
Carter and Cassaday McGeoch and McDonald Baddeley Bahrick( Carter and Cassaday, McGeoch and McDonald, Baddeley, Bahrick ) (1998 1985 1983 1975( 1998, 1985, 1983, 1975 )) conducted a study based on state context( state, context ) dependent forgetting. They either gave the participants anti-histamines alcohol cigarettes to smoke food( anti-histamines, alcohol, cigarettes to smoke, food ) or didn't, asked them to learn and recall word lists. They recalled them either on the drug or not. They found that when there was a mismatch match similarity( mismatch, match, similarity ) of internal states, recall was worse better( worse, better ).
Name two advantages of the retrieval failure explanation for forgetting
Real life application
Supporting evidence
Takes culture differences into account
Name three disadvantages of the retrieval failure explanation for forgetting
Context effects not strong
State effects not strong
Lack of research evidence
Can't test ESP
Only affects certain type of memory (Recall vs. recognition)
Which researcher investigated leading questions and when?
Carter and Cassaday , 1998
Loftus and Palmer, 1974
Which verb in the leading question study by Loftus and Palmer, 1974, led to the highest calculated mean average?
Contacted
Smashed
Bumped
Hit
The response bias researcher bias participant bias memory bias( response bias, researcher bias, participant bias, memory bias ) explanation suggests that the wording of a question has no effect a big effect some effect( no effect, a big effect, some effect ) on the participants' memories, but it changes the way they decide to answer. Words such as 'smashed contacted bumped hit( smashed, contacted, bumped, hit )' encouraged them to answer a higher lower( higher, lower ) estimated speed.
Loftus and Palmer Miller Baddeley Carter and Cassaday( Loftus and Palmer, Miller, Baddeley, Carter and Cassaday ) (1974 1931 1966 1998( 1974, 1931, 1966, 1998 )) conducted a second experiment to prove that memory was wasn't( was, wasn't ) changed by wording location state( wording, location, state ). They found that participants who heard 'smashed contacted bumped hit( smashed, contacted, bumped, hit )' were more less( more, less ) likely to report broken glass even though there wasn't any.
If witnesses criminals police officers( witnesses, criminals, police officers ) discuss a crime with each other, their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated more accurate lies( contaminated, more accurate, lies ). This is because they combine ignore change( combine, ignore, change ) information from others with their own memories.
Which researcher investigated post-event discussion and when?
Carter and Cassaday, 1998
Tulving, 1983
Gabbert, 2003
Gabbert Tulving Baddeley Loftus and Palmer( Gabbert, Tulving, Baddeley, Loftus and Palmer ) put participants in pairs, and they watched a video of the same a different( the same, a different ) crime from different the same( different, the same ) perspectives. They had a post-event discussion, and were then asked to recall the event. Gabbert found that 71 66 31 84( 71, 66, 31, 84 )% of participants recalled information that they couldn't have seen from their perspective, suggesting post-event discussion directly affects doesn't affect positively affects( directly affects, doesn't affect, positively affects ) eyewitness testimony.
Name an advantage of research into leading questions and post-event discussions.
Real life applications
Realistic tasks- better generalisability
High external validity
Name three disadvantages of research into leading questions and post-event discussions.
Artificial tasks
Individual differences e.g. age
Lab studies- demand characteristics
Can't generalise to collectivist cultures
Lack of clarity
No real life application
Which researcher investigated how anxiety affects recall in a negative way, and when?
Johnson and Scott, 1976
Baddeley, 1996
Which answer describes Johnson and Scott's study on anxiety?
Participants believed they were doing a lab study. While waiting in the waiting room, an argument was heard, and a man either came out of the room with a pen and grease on his hands, or a paper knife with blood on it.
A study on a real life shooting, in which they interviewed people 5 months after the incident to see if anxiety had affected their memory in any way compared to their original police interviews, as well as seeing if they suffered any emotional stress since the incident.
Which researcher investigated how anxiety affects recall in a positive way, and when?
Yuille and Cutshall, 1986
Which answer describes Yuille and Cutshall's study on anxiety?
Which two researchers explained the contradictory evidence provided by Johnson and Scott, and Yuille and Cutshall, and when?
Deffenbacher, 1983
Yerkes and Dodson, 1908
The Yerkes-Dodson Johnson-Scott Deffenbacher Peterson-Peterson Baddeley( Yerkes-Dodson, Johnson-Scott, Deffenbacher, Peterson-Peterson, Baddeley ) law suggested that the relationship between emotional arousal physical arousal physiological arousal cognitive arousal( emotional arousal, physical arousal, physiological arousal, cognitive arousal ) and performance production happiness terror anxiety( performance, production, happiness, terror, anxiety ) looks like an inverted U M N V( U, M, N, V ). This means that too little much( little, much ) anxiety leads to too little much( little, much ) recall, and too much little( much, little ) anxiety leads to too little much( little, much ) recall. Therefore, there is an optimal worst normal( optimal, worst, normal ) level of anxiety to ensure accurate recall.
Name five disadvantages of the anxiety-recall studies.
1. focus could be - may be based on of object/situation, not anxiety 2. Field studies can lack - Yuille and Cutshall's (1986) study had post-event discussions, which is an variable 3. issues- deception (thought they were doing lab study), harm (inducing anxiety) 4. Inverted U too - anxiety has more elements (emotional, cognitive etc.) other than 5. characteristics- lab studies
Which researcher investigated the cognitive interview and when?
Johnson and Scott, 1986
Fisher and Geiselmann, 1992
What are the 4 steps of a cognitive interview?
1. Report everything Reinstate the context Reverse the order Change perspective( Report everything, Reinstate the context, Reverse the order, Change perspective )- include every detail, no matter how seemingly significant they are. They may actually be important, or trigger other memories 2. Reinstate the context Report everything Reverse the order Chnage perspective( Reinstate the context, Report everything, Reverse the order, Chnage perspective )- the witness should return to the scene in their mind, and remember their feelings and the environment (e.g. weather) 3. Reverse the order Report everything Reinstate the context Change perspective( Reverse the order, Report everything, Reinstate the context, Change perspective )- change the chronology of event, preventing lying or basing answers on expectations 4. Change perspective Report everything Reinstate the context Reverse the order( Change perspective, Report everything, Reinstate the context, Reverse the order )- ask the witness to imagine themselves as a different witness/criminal, and then what they would've seen. This prevents basing answers on expectations.
Name five aspects to enhance the cognitive interview created by Fisher (1987)
Keeping eye contact when necessary
Asking witness to speak slowly
Reducing anxiety
Minimise distractions
Take place in a room without windows
Open-ended questions
Closed questions to ensure participants don't lie as much
Asking witness to drink coffee before to ensure high brain activity
Name three disadvantages of the cognitive interview
Not all information is relevant
Expensive and time-consuming
Doesn't improve accuracy of testimonies
Increases inaccurate information
Too vague, needs to be more direct
Name an advantage of the cognitive interview
Research support for effectiveness
Rigid design across police force
Very accurate
Semantic memory involves our . Unlike episodic memory, these memories are not , although they do require to recall.
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