How does urine travel from the kidneys to the bladder?

How do the ureters enter the bladder, and how is back flow prevented?

What are kidney stones?

What can cause kidney stones? (5)

What are the symptoms that a kidney stone can cause? (4)

What feature of the bladder allows stretch?

What is the internal sphincter?

What is the external sphincter?

What are the differences between the female and male bladder and urethra? (4)

How is innervation to the bladder both sensory and motor?

Which 3 sets of nerves innervate the lower urinary tract?

What are the afferent (sensory) pathways?

What is the motor innervation of the bladder?

Micturition is an _________ reflex for babies and adults with spinal injury, but can be modified to be under _____________ ________ as we grow. Once we have this, higher centres allow us to switch between __________ and ______________.

How can we modify the micturition reflex voluntarily?

Why is it important to empty the bladder?

Name 3 types of UTI

Why are UTIs more common in women?

Why can they become common in men over the age of 40?

What are the 2 types of incontinence?

What is atonic bladder?

What is automatic bladder?

What is neurogenic bladder?

Name 6 'renal syndromes'.

Why is it difficult to diagnose specific renal diseases?

How could you give a definite diagnosis?

What are the 3 sub-categories of AKI?

What are pre-renal causes?

How can NSAIDs affect the kidney?

What happens if the pre-renal causes of kidney injury are not corrected?

What are 3 intrinsic renal diseases?

What are post-renal causes of AKI?

How are the post-renal causes identified and treated?

Why are renal patients disproportionately expensive?

What other health conditions can CKD lead to?

Why might dialysis not be a suitable treatment option for some patients?

How is the patient connected to the haemodialysis machine?

How does the dialysis machine filter the blood?

How does peritoneal dialysis differ?

Why is it important to limit fluid intake when patients are on dialysis?