Approaches to Psychology

Approaches in Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt was the first person to call themselves a psychologist; he studied the structure of the human mind, studying only aspects of behaviour that could be strictly controlled by experimental conditions. He primarily used introspection, which is the process by which a person gains knowledge about their mental and emotional state. Wundt would show people an object and ask them how they were perceiving it in order to establish a general theory about how perception works.Wundt also considered empiricism, the belief that knowledge comes from observation and experience rather than being innate. He also ensured that his methods of study were scientific: objective, systematic and replicable. 

Behavioural Approach

This approach suggests that behaviour is learnt through the environment, as a result of conditioning. There are two types of conditioning: > Classical Conditioning is learning a behaviour through association. Pavlov conducted a study into this type of conditioning when he noticed that the unconditioned stimulus of food consistently produced the unconditioned response of the dog drooling. He added a neutral stimulus of a bell ringing when the UCS was present. After several pairings of the UCS and NS, the dogs would drool simply when the bell rang, even when there was no food, as they were conditioned to associate the sound of the bell ringing with food. > Operant Conditioning is learning through reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is when the behaviour results in the addition of a pleasant consequence whereas negative reinforcement is when the behaviour results in the removal of an unpleasant consequence. Punishment is when a behaviour results in the addition of an unpleasant consequence.. Skinner carried out research using 'Skinner's Box'. He attempted to condition rats through reinforcement; if the rat pressed the lever when the light shone, they were rewarded with food. He also established schedules of reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement schedules (feeding the rat every time they pressed the lever) were most effective in establishing a particular response whereas partial reinforcement schedules (feeding the rat every third lever press) were most effective for maintaining the particular response and avoiding extinction.  + studies used in the behaviourist approach used scientific methods to produce valid results e.g. high variable control, objectivity,  + resulted in effective therapy for phobias e.g. systematic desensitisation or flooding  - both Pavlov and Skinner used animals in their studies, meaning the results cannot be generalised to humans as there are too many genetic differences - the approach is reductionist, taking the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate and completely ignoring genetic influences

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Behaviour is learnt through observation and copying the behaviour of others. Key elements include:  > Imitation is the action of using someone as a model, copying their behaviour  > Identification is adopting an attitude/behaviour to be associated with a particular person or group > Modelling is where the particular behaviour is learnt by observing another person perform that particular behaviour > Vicarious Reinforcement is observing another person's behaviour being rewarded or punished. The individual is more likely to repeat the behaviour themselves if the person they are observing is rewarded > SLT considers mediational processes e.g. attention, memory and motivationBandura's Bobo Doll experiment showed how children copy the behaviour of adults. The children observed an adult aggresively attacking a bobo doll. When left alone with the doll themselves, the children acted in a similar aggressive manner, imitating the behaviour of the adult model. The children who had observed an unaggressive model were not aggressive to the bobo doll. + the studies used in SLT are reliable as they used scientific methods with high control and precise measurements+ Akers found useful applications for SLT; if people see criminal behaviour being modelled, they are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour themselves - the SLT studies lack ecological validity as they were lab experiments, meaning the theory may not explain real life behaviour- the approach is extremely deterministic, assuming behaviour is entirely the result of the environment (nurture over nature) and ignoring other influences - it may not establish cause and effect..... surely humans are more complex than SLT suggests? There must be other causes of human behaviour. 

Cognitive Approach 

This approach emphasises the ability to process information. People organise and process relevant information before deciding how best to act. This can be explained through schema, a cognitive framework in the brain that organises and interprets information. Schema tells people what to expect in a given situation based on pre-existing beliefs. It also provides shortcuts, filling in any gaps in knowledge. The combination of expectations and shortcuts can lead to creating and believing in stereotypes. The cognitive approach uses theoretical models such as the MSM as simplified representations of current research evidence, and it uses the computer model to try and explain how people process information. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience provides objective evidence to show how changes in the brain can affect behaviour. For example, the medial prefrontal cortex is associated with guilt. If this part of the brain is inactive, the individual may be unable to feel guilt or empathy. Parts of the brain that are damaged or have wasted away can also affect an individuals behaviour. + the cognitive approach addresses the shortcomings of SLT and behaviourist approaches by providing a detailed, developed account of interal processes + it takes an interactionist approach, that is, it believes both nature and nurture influence behaviour  - it uses contrived and unrealistic tasks in research, which cannot accurately reflect real world psychological and behavioural processes  - it neglects the influence of emotions in its computer model; emotions can have a big impact on thinking and behaviour

Biological Approach

Behaviour is the result of physical causes such as genetics. Family studies found that a close genetic link means there is a higher chance of inheriting a behaviour. Monozygotic (identical) twins have the same genetic make up, therefore would most likely posses the same behaviours. The genotype is the gene itself, whereas the phenotype is the physical characteristic as a result of the genotype and the environment. Neurotransmitters stimulate different parts of the brain, The amount an individual has of a certain neurotransmitter can affect their behaviour, for example, someone with high dopamine levels has an increased risk of schizophrenia. The same can be said for hormones; high testosterone levels result in increased energy levels.  Different parts of the brain control different behaviours. If an individual has little activity in their medial prefrontal cortex, they are unlikely to feel empathy or guilt, consequently affecting their behaviour.  + scientific methods were used in the investigation of this approach, making it valid and reliable  + the approach has real world applications e.g. the discovery of neurochemical imbalances causing depression has led to the development of antidepressants - reductionist; doesn't consider cognitive, emotional or cultural influences on behaviour - some behaviours are purely cultural e.g. avoiding incest is a moral obligation as opposed to a matter of survival of the fittest eradicating incest