Organic Synthesis

These are the reactions that alkanes can perform. Firstly cracking, the conditions required for this process can either be high [blank_start]temperature[blank_end] and [blank_start]pressure[blank_end] or a [blank_start]zeolite[blank_end] catalyst. Next: combustion. combustion can either be complete or, when there is insufficient [blank_start]oxygen[blank_end], incomplete. Finally free-radical substitution. There are [blank_start]3[blank_end] steps to this mechanism. First is [blank_start]initiation[blank_end] where chlorine is converted into chlorine [blank_start]free radicals[blank_end] using [blank_start]u.v[blank_end] light. Next is [blank_start]propagation[blank_end] where chlorine reacts with alkanes producing more free radicals. The last stage is [blank_start]termination.[blank_end] When free radicals meet and produce stable compounds.

These are the reactions that Alkenes can perform. Firstly hydrogenation. Addition of [blank_start]hydrogen[blank_end] using a [blank_start]nickel[blank_end] catalyst to produce an alkane. Next is [blank_start]electrophilic[blank_end] addition. This opens up the double bond and usually produces a [blank_start]haloalkane.[blank_end] For example the bromine test for alkenes. However the electrophilic addition of sulfuric acid produces an [blank_start]alkyl hydrogensulfate[blank_end], the addition of [blank_start]water[blank_end] to this will produce an [blank_start]alcohol[blank_end] and sulfuric acid. Finally alkenes can undergo [blank_start]addition[blank_end] polymerisation this opens up the double bond and allows the alkene to act as a monomer or [blank_start]repeating unit.[blank_end]

These are the reactions of haloalkanes. Firstly, [blank_start]nucleophilic[blank_end] substitution. Depending on the nucleophile there will be different products. For example if the nucleophile is potassium [blank_start]cyanide[blank_end], the product will be a [blank_start]nitrile[blank_end] which can be reduced into an [blank_start]amine[blank_end] using hydrogen and a nickel catalyst or [blank_start]lithium aluminium hydride[blank_end]. If hydroxide ions are used an [blank_start]alcohol[blank_end] will be produced. If ammonia is used an [blank_start]amine[blank_end] will be produced (be aware [blank_start]2[blank_end] mols of ammonia will be needed). The conditions for substitution are in [blank_start]aqueous[blank_end] solution at [blank_start]room[blank_end] temperature. Elimination is another reaction of the haloalkanes. This requires a hydroxide ion and produces an [blank_start]alkene[blank_end]. For elimination the ions must be in [blank_start]ethanol[blank_end] solution and heated.

These are the reactions of the alcohols. Firstly elimination. In alcohols this is also called [blank_start]dehydration[blank_end] and uses either conc [blank_start]sulfuric[blank_end] or conc [blank_start]phosphoric[blank_end] acid to produce [blank_start]alkenes[blank_end]. Next is oxidation, usually the oxidising agent is acidified [blank_start]potassium dichromate[blank_end]. If a [blank_start]primary[blank_end] alcohol is used an aldehyde will be produced, if the aldehyde is then oxidised further a [blank_start]carboxylic acid[blank_end] will be produced. If a secondary alcohol is used a [blank_start]ketone[blank_end] will be produced and [blank_start]tertiary[blank_end] alcohols cannot be easily oxidised. Alcohols can also be involved in [blank_start]esterification[blank_end]. If an alcohol is combined with an acyl chloride an ester and [blank_start]HCL[blank_end] are produced. Similarly if an alcohol and an acyl anhydride are combined an ester and [blank_start]carboxylic acid[blank_end] will be produced. The mechanism is called [blank_start]nucleophilic addition-elimination[blank_end].

These are the reactions of the Aldehydes & Ketones. Firstly Aldehydes can be oxidised to form [blank_start]carboxylic acids[blank_end], ketones [blank_start]cannot[blank_end]. Both can undergo hydrogenation and can be [blank_start]reduced[blank_end] using [blank_start]NaBH4[blank_end], both these reactions produce [blank_start]alcohols[blank_end]. The mechanism for reduction of these groups is [blank_start]nucleophilic addition[blank_end]. They can also undergo nucleophilic addition with [blank_start]hydrogen cyanide[blank_end] to produce a 2-hydroxynitrile.

These are the reactions of carboxylic acids and esters. Carboxylic acid reacts with [blank_start]sodium hydrogencarbonate[blank_end] and [blank_start]carbon dioxide[blank_end] is evolved. Carboxylic acid will react with alcohol with conc [blank_start]sulfuric acid[blank_end] to produce an ester. When an ester is heated with an [blank_start]alkali[blank_end] it is [blank_start]hydrolysed[blank_end] to an alcohol an a [blank_start]carboxylate[blank_end] salt

These are Acylation reactions, reactions of the acid chloride and the acid anhydride groups. Acid chloride can undergo several [blank_start]nucleophilic addition-elimination[blank_end] reactions. They can be with water, [blank_start]alcohols[blank_end], ammonia and [blank_start]amines[blank_end]. Acid chlorides can also undergo [blank_start]electrophilic substitution[blank_end] with benzene and an [blank_start]aluminium chloride[blank_end] catalyst. Acid anhydride can also undergo all the [blank_start]nucleophilic addition-elimination[blank_end] reactions.

This is aromatic chemistry. Benzene undergoes [blank_start]electrophilic substitution reactions[blank_end]. With concentrated nitric and sulfuric acid [blank_start]nitrobenzene[blank_end] is produced. This can be reduced further using [blank_start]tin and HCL[blank_end] to produce [blank_start]phenylamine[blank_end]. Benzene can be reduced using hydrogen and a nickel catalyst to produce [blank_start]hexane[blank_end].