Zusammenfassung der Ressource
The Cognitive Approach
- Assumptions
- Behaviour can be explained by mental processes
- We are information processors
- Cognitive processes help us understand the world
- L -Learning
A -Attention
M -Memory
P -Perception
- Schemas
- mental structure
that represents
something in the
world.
- Human mind is compared to a computer
- We take in information,
change/store it then recall
when necessary
- Input,
process,
output
- Multistore model of
memory
- Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
- Info enters through
the senses, moves to
the STM, then the
LTM until it's needed
for recall
- Attribution Theory
- Real World Applications
- Storms and Nisbett (1970)
- Given a pill that would either
arouse or sedate. Those who
expected arousal attributed it to
the pill and went to sleep
- We constantly attribute
behaviour, as we always look for
ways to explain people's
behaviour
- Internal/Dispositional
- We explain
behaviour in terms of
the person
- External/Situational
- We explain behaviour
through social norms or
luck.
- Heider (1944)
- Silent film of triangles. Asked P's to describe
what had happened, and think they were
humans, and they attributed personality traits
to inanimate objects
- 1958 - decided that
people are 'naive
scientists' trying to
understand people's
behaviour
- FAE
- We are more likely to attribute internally
- Not always the case, in
COLLECTIVIST cultures, they
attribute externally, in
INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures (USA)
they tend to attribute internally
- Fundamental
Attribution Error
- Ross (1977) - quiz show. asked to attribute
the contestants on ability. P's knew questions
were made up but still rated contestants
highly
- Covariation Model
- Kelley (1967)
- Covary: things
that tend to happen
simulateneously
- Consistency
- Behaving in
the same way
all the time.
- Distinctiveness
- Behaving
the same
to unique
stimuli
- Consensus
- Everyone
reacts the
same to stimuli
- Internal
(HLL)
- External
(HHH)
- McArthur (1972)
- 12 P's were asked to
attribute sentences.
They followed the
model shown -->
- However, people
often behave
irrationally and not
mechanistically
- Errors and biases
- Actor/Observer bias
- Nisbett et al (1973
- Asked P's to say why they
and a friend wanted to study
a course. P's attributed
externally, and attributed
their friend internally
- Shows that we attribute
ourselves externally and
others internally
- Self-serving bias
- Jones et al (1968)
- P's had to teach two pupils,
they attributed pupil
improvement internally, but
blamed their failure on the
pupils (externally)
- We take credit for successes but disassociate
failure.
- Strengths and Weaknesses
- Weaknesses
- Mechanist Approach
- Portrays the mind as a
machine
- Ignores social and
emotional factors
- Reductionist as it simplifies our
behaviour
- Our behaviour is far
more complexed than
a computer as we can
feel emotion etc
- Irrational behaviour
- Nature and
Nurture
- Although it explains
behavior internally and
externally, it still doesn't
consider important
elements of
nature/nurture
- The role of genes is
ignored, yet research into
intelligence usually looks
into genes
- Social and cultural factors are ignored.
- Piaget didn't consider
social and cultural
factors in
developmental
psychology
- Strengths
- Mediational Processes
- Looks at the 'black box' and
focuses on important
processes
- Behaviourists do not look at this 'black
box'
- Cognitive psychologists explain
mediational processes
- For example, how memory
and perception are
important in understanding
the world.
- Helped explain
practical elements, for
example why we make
shopping lists
- Important Contributions
- Influenced many areas of
Psychology such as treating
depression via CBT
- Applied to Developmental
Psychology
- Piaget (1970) suggested children's
thinking is not the same as adults.
- Teachers now use concrete problems
with children as they are unable to
understand abstract problems
- Social Psychology -
much of it is
cognitive as it looks
at mental processes.
- Why we form stereotypes etc
- Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
- Used for mental
disorders but also
smaller things like
marriage counselling
- Doesn't involve
searching for
deep meaning
- Cognitive and
Behaviourist
approaches
- Real world
applications
- Ryan Babel: was booed by fans, which knocked his
confidence. Rafa told him they were doing it out of
fear, and soon his confidence came back
- The Cognitive
Approach
- Key influence is how
people think of a situation
- Attempts to change
maladaptive thoughts
- Beck (1976):
"dysfunctional automatic
thoughts"
- Meichenbaum
(1977):
"counterproductive
self-statements"
- Replace negative thoughts with
positive ones
- Does consider the causes of
behaviour; faulty thinking. However
not focused on finding the cause
- The Behaviourist
Approach
- Undesirable
behaviours are learnt,
so therapy reverses the
learning process
- Rewards desirable behaviours
- Problem: do not consider
causes of behaviours, only
replace them.
- Symptom substitution:
undesirable behaviours
could return
- Beck's Cognitive
Therapy (1967)
- Believed depression
was caused by a
negative view of the
world
- Negative view of ourselves
Negative view of the world
Negative view of the future
- Cognitive Triad
- Pessimistic
- Dysfunctional Thought Diary
- As 'homework' P's are
asked to record any
events prior to
unpleasant emotions
- rate how much they
believe these thoughts
(0-100%)
- Clients are asked to give a
rational response for the event,
and then whether they believe the
rational response is true
- Asked to rate beliefs in these automatic thoughts again
- Therapy during therapy
- Taught to challenge
dysfunctional automatic
thoughts by asking
themselves questions to
challenge it
- Replaced with more
constructive thoughts;
new ways of behaving
- Where's the evidence this happened?
What's the worst than can happen if it's true?
- Meichenbaum's
SIT (1985)
- Deals with stress
- We cannot change the causes of
stress, but we can change the way
we think about the stressor
- Negative thinking may
lead to negative
outcomes and vice versa
- Meichenbaum believed that you could almost
inject yourself with negative thoughts, and
replace them with positive thoughts via 3 ways
- Conceptualisation Phase
- P's taught to think of
threats as problems to be
solved.
- Skills Acquisition Phase
- Positive thinking,
relaxation, social
skills.
- These are cognitive
as they encourage
the client to think in a
different way
- Application Phase
- Opportunities to apply
their new skills in
situations which
become gradually more
stressful
- Techniques such as
modelling are used
- Research
evidence for
CBT
- David and
Avellino
(2003)
- reported CBT
has highest
success rate
- Wampold
et al
(2002)
- disagrees
with David
- Kuyken
and
Tsivrikos
(2009)
- 15% of variance may
be attributable to
therapist competence
- Methodology
- Lab Experiments
- Weaknesses
- Lacks ecological validity and
mundane realism
- Loftus and Palmer -
didn't witness a real
accident, how can we be
sure it applies to
everyday life
- Foster et al - found that if P's
believed they witnessed a
real robbery, and were at a
real trial, then they'd ID the
perp.
- P's are likely to act
unnaturally as they do
not want to ruin the
study, or will try and
guess the aims of the
study
- Demand
Characteristics
- Experimenter bias -
could convey
behaviour that
influences P's
- Strengths
- Best way to study causal
relationships as extraneous
variables are controlled
- Objective, standard procedures
increases validity
- Easy to analyse; quantitative data
- Cognitive Psychologists believe
that psychology is a pure science
so should be measured objectively
and scientifically
- Cognitive psys believe they
can make inferences about
thought processes by
observing behaviour in
controlled conditions
- Lab experiments,
questionnaires
- Loftus and Palmer,
memory, leading questions
- Weapon effect, understanding memory
- We focus on more
threatening things, such
as a knife covered in
blood, than a pen in
grease
- 49% pen
33% knife
- Case Studies of Brain
Damaged Indivudals
- Weaknesses
- Almost impossible to replicate
- Lacks generalisability
- Results can be subjective to
bias as qualitative data is
obtained
- Strengths
- A true insight into
behaviour can be gained,
as you spend a lot longer
with the P
- Qualitative data is obtained,
so we can draw more
conclusions about behaviour
- In-depth
investigations of a
person, group or
event
- HM
- Permanent
memory loss as
a result of brain
damage
- Could remember
things before the
operation, but not
after
- Supports the Multistore model of
memory, that we process STM
and LTM