Psych 66 - Introduction To Critical Thinking Notes

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING

What is Critical Thinking?Critical thinking is deciding what to believe and how to use information after carefully evaluating the evidence and reasoning in a communication. The process involves 3 essential components. Knowledge - A basic knowledge of a Topic . The ability to identify and evaluate research evidence by understanding the difference between scientific and non-scientific evidence and the strengths and weaknesses of various types of psychological research. Skills - A set of skills that can be used to evaluate both the information and the reasoning The attitude to apply the knowledge and skills in deciding what to believe

What are is the four steps to guide critical thinking? Identify Source - Is it a secondary or primary source Read To Understand Identify the research evidence Evaluate the research evidence

Chapter 2

IDENTIFY PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

How do you identify psychological research?When psychologists are finished with their research they describe the way their study was done and the results. This info is published in journals and books. These reports are called primary research reports because the information / observations are reported by the person who made the observations.

How do you identify psychological research found in secondary sources?To identify psychological research look for 3 parts: Citation A description of the study The research results

What is a citation? A citation is similar to a footnote. A citation is placed just before the research is described and it signals the reader that the information comes from a primary source where the complete specifics of the study are documented. The citation contains the last names of the researchers and the the year that the primary research report was published. At the conclusion of the source you are reading, their will be references so you can locate the original study. However, most newspapers and magazines don't provide references.

What is included in the description of study?The description of the study specifies the facts about the subjects and the procedure.Subjects (or sample) - Who were the subjects that were servayed by the researcher? Were the subjects human or non human? What were their traits? How was the subject selected? How many subjects were observed? Writers should specify prominently who the subjects were and how they were chosen.Procedure - The procedure reports what was done to the subjects, the circumstances in which the subjects were placed, what was controlled and what specific behaviors were observed.

What are the research results?The research results will lay out what was discovered from the observations of the subjects. Sometimes writers will include their personal views which may not be based on careful observations, because of this, the citation, description and results don't certify that the evidence is trustworthy.

What are the key terms of the experimental research?Hypothosis - A hypothesis is a prediction (a best guess) as to what condition or event might cause a change of behavior. In determining whether or not to support or reject the hypothesis careful controlled repeated and objective observations are made. Psychological evidence in psychology doesn't prove a hypothesis.Subjects - Researchers use random sampling to avoid unreliable results. Random selection means that each subject had an equal chance to be selected from the population. If the group that is observed isn't typical of the population then the conclusions of the sample may not apply to the population. Random sampling is used to attain a representative sample.Controlled Variables - A controlled variable are the elements of the experement that do not change through out the entire procedure. These are the elements that were controlled by the person conducting the research so that they were identical for all the subjects. Controlled variables is significant to designate causes.Independent Variables - The independent variable is the one changed by the experimenter, for example the size of the group sampled. The independent variables are the traits of the experiment that are manipulated by the experimenter. The experimenter includes independent variables to observe if these variables cause any changes in behaviors.Dependent Variables - The dependent variable is what the subject does or how they behave following the independent variable. What is the effect that that independent variable has had on the subject?Experimental or controlled groups - Description of study - The description tells about the subjects and what was done to them.Results - The results of the experimentLimited circumstances - The specific and limited circumstances that the research study takes place under. The subjects are observed in a particular time and place with a specific procedure. Limited circumstances let us know that the observations were made under ones set of circumstances and may not apply to other circumstances. Limited circumstances are a part of all research.

Major types of psychological research evidence:Descriptive evidence: clinical obsevations correlation studies naturalistic observations surveys tests Experimental Evidence: hypothosis independent variables dependent variables controlled variables experimental group control group random assignment limited circumstances

Chapter 3

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SECONDARY SOURCES IN PSYCHOLOGY: THE FIRST TWO STEPSStep 1: Identify the sourceStep 2: Read to understand

Step 1: Identify the source:It is important to identify the source of the information because if what you learn from the source is reliable and beneficial, you may choose to quote or refer to that source in writing or in conversation. The second reason is that certain authors give more substantial evidence and logical analisys.To Identify an article: Look for authors last names, the name of the publication in which the article was published and the year the article was publishedTo Identify a book:Identify the authors last name, the title of the book and the year the book was published.The writer:What are the qualifications or the writerHave they extensively studied the topic?Do they present evidence for and against their view?Do they use careful reasoning?State conclusions based on the presented evidence?Observers present at event, skilled in making observations, used precise techniques and had no preconceptions about the results.Higher accuracy in general from primary sources (those reporting their own observations) then from writers summarizing research of others (secondary sources). Both types of sources must be considered when a reader is deciding what to believe.Type of publication:Where the info was published can provide clues about the quality the content. Scientific publications (books and journals):evaluate the evidence that writers wish to publish and require that related info be presented. They will reject poorly designed studies or reports with key info missing. High standards for research presented need to be met. These publications have a reference page at end of article so readers can check for the primary sources themselves.Other publications:May pursue big headlineTell only part of the storypresent careless evidencedraw conclusions beyond evidenceInternet sources:Often opinion filledContain little or no scientific evidence.Evidence and reasoning matter more then credentialsAlthough it is important to identify the source, knowing who wrote the article and where it was published are not always useful in evaluating source because many experts do not deliver dependable info.

Step 2: Read to understandHow do you know when you understand the article? You understand the article whiny are able to accurately summarize the article in your own words, detect the misused words and identify propaganda techniques.What is the author's central idea?Sometimes called a main idea, a thesis, a conclusion, a purpose or a writers opinion on the topic. The central idea is often presented near the beginning or at the end of article. Some writers only hint at central idea. Article may have to be read more then once to identify the central idea.What are the key points?The central idea builds on key points (main points) What evidence is used to support the key points.What three words are often misused? Prove - psychological research supports or does not support the hypothesis, it does not prove a hypothesis or signify proof. "Proves" is rarely used correctly in psychological research. Random sampling - implies all the population had an equal chance of being studied and that the possibility of bias was small. Some authors label selecting someone walking down the street as random which is not random. Non random sampling can easily lead to inaccurate conclusions. Average - can signify "mean", "median" or "mode". Mean = arithmetic average. Median is the middle most score and mode is the score that occurs the most often. Writers don't always identify which average they are referring to. What are 5 propaganda techniques?Propaganda techniques are used to persuade through the use of emotion rather than critical thinking. Often used to sell products and persuade people how to vote. The 5 most common are: The bandwagon: asks the reader to uncritically accept something because supposedly everyone else excepted it. or this can also apply to everyone doing something Extreme statements: The words "completely", "entirely", "always", "none", "never" & "no exceptions" are usually exaggerations false when applied to psychological topics. Glittering Generalities: Appeals to emotions through using "good words" to draw attention away from the ideas and evidence. Examples: "dramatic evidence", "conclusive", "the best", "the most important" Namecalling: Appeals to hate and fear by labeling the source with bad names to draw attention away from the evidence. Testimonial: The reader is asked to accept uncritically a conclusion because someone important, popular or even an expert believes the conclusion.

Chapter 4

IDENTIFY AND EVALUATE THE RESEARCH EVIDENCEStep 3: Identify the research evidenceStep 4: Evaluate the research evidence

Step 3: Identify the research evidenceLook for the evidence presented by the writer. Identify the psychological research. After reading carefully and becoming clear on what the author is saying look to the evidence to decide what to believe.In psychology a statement probably true and probably false based on the research evidence. (instead of proving and disproving a statement) That evidence comes from systematic and careful observations of behavior.When reading a secondary source know what kind of evidence is presented? Separate scientific research evidence from non scientific evidence. separate complete and incomplete evidence.1. How do you identify a psychological fact? Citation Description of study the research results 1. How do you identify incomplete research evidence? If the results are accompanied by a citation but no description of the study is given you could try to read the original study to learn how the results were obtained If there is no citation or wither the year or author is missing from the citation then do not treat the evidence as scientific. If the result does not look like it was obtained from careful and repeated observations of behavior then do not treat it as a psychological fact. If there is no description of the study label it as incomplete research If there is a description of study label it as psychological fact. NON SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE Opinions Value Judgements Unsupported assertions Personal experiences Secondhand reports SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH EVIDENCE Based on observations of behavior Repeated Objective Not biased Controlled Precise Problems that occur when non scientific evidence is used It may not be clear who actually made the observation and under what conditions. The observations are not repeated or carefully checked The people being observed are this who are available and rarely representative of a larger population Important terms are not precisely defined and sometimes the definition of key terms change A comparison group or condition is rarely available Control over important variables is impossible It is difficult to keep constant the relevant factors to be able to state a specific cause. Subtle factors can be overlooked. All of the evidence is not used. Evidence that is contrary to the statement is over looked or only part of the evidence is selected. Some writers have biases which interfere with the objective observation and make it difficult to separate evidence from opinions and value judgements

Step 4: Evaluate the research evidence Evaluate the research evidence: Evaluate the reasoning that ties the evidence to the key point Do the conclusions go beyond the evidence? How good is the research evidence? What kinds of problems are there with the research evidence? Are there problems with the reasoning relevant to the research evidence? Identify the source (citation) Summarize the way the study was done (description of study) The research results Decide if you have a psychological fact or incomplete research evidence (Even when you label a sentence as psychological fact some important info may still be missing. ) Citation: Who conducted the research and when? How recent is it? Is there more current research that might have modified the study? Is any related research sited? Subjects: Who are the subjects? What are their characteristics? Were different age groups studied?How many subjects were observed? If only a few subjects were observed the results will likely produce not typical results and might produce misleading and unusual conclusions. Were too few subjects studied? Experiments usually use the smallest number of subjects. Surveys need more subjects to generalize to populations. How were they selected from the population? Was the selection procedure unbiased? If random sampling is used is it explained? If a random process was not used who does the sample represent? Are the subjects relevant to the central idea and key points? Has the writer overgeneralized the results? From animals to humans? From college students to all humans? From males to females? Procedure: How was the study done? How were the observations made? What were the subjects told? Dependent and independent variables How were these variables defined and measured? What factors have been controlled to produce reliable results Was there a control group? If yes how were the subjects assigned to the experimental and control groups? Random assignments avoid bias. Is the independent variable precisely defined? Is the dependent variable precisely defined? What are the limited circumstances? Are the psychological terms defined? everyday terms have a different meaning when used by psychologists. Writers of psych topics should define the terms. If the writer does not are the terms used consistently in the source. Look up unfamiliar terms in a psych dictionary. Constructs - terms that refer to a variety of behaviors: Aggression, helping, cognitive dissonance, mental illness, intelligence and learning are broad psych terms called constructs. Constructs are used to pull related research for better understanding Operational Definitions: Since constructs are broad terms they cannot be studied directly and the construct must be refined to state a specific aspect of that behavior. Researchers must define exactly what they are going to observe and how they will measure behavior. If researchers do not use operational definitions they might not be measuring the same behavior every time and other researchers will not know exactly what behavior was observed. Example: Construct definition: Aggression is intended to harm another (Broad) Operational definition: Aggression is the behavior of person A (the subject) pushing a button to deliver an electric shock to person B whenever B gives the wrong answer (Specific) Possible problems dealing with procedure: If there is control group - no cause and effect statement can be made. Misleading conclusion can easily occur when there is no comparison group Was a reasonable control group used? Was the best control condition used? or should several be used? Were subjects randomly assigned to the control groups? If not results might be due to differences in the group rather than the independent variable If other variables were not controlled they may produce the observed change in behavior and not the independent variable Did subjects get the identical independent variable Was the measurement of the dependent variable consistent across subjects? If it is not reliable then the resulting variability can influence the results. Research results: Are the results clearly and fully presented? How big is the difference among groups? Is it a statistically significant difference? Are specifics given? Are results given for each group studied? Is there an indication that the results were statistically significant Are the results based on reported observations? Are the results consistent with other research results on the topic? Reasoning: How is the psych evidence tied in with central idea an key points? Is it relevant? Does the writer draw the correct conclusion from evidence? Does writer generalize beyond evidence? (important to look at who the subjects were and how they were selected. Was control condition used for comparison? If not approach research with great caution Was a cause and effect relationship based on research evidence other than an experiment? A correlation does not mean a cause has been isolated A change is stated but no measurements were made before introduction of the independent variable A survey was conducted but the sample was not randomly selected from population.

EVALUATING PSYCH FACTS IN SECONDARY SOURCESWhat is the psych fact for each key point? Citation Who did the study and when? Is the evidence recent? Subjects Who were they? What were their characteristics? Their number? How were they selected? What is left out? What problems are there with the subjects? Procedures How was the research done? Is there a control group? Were the subjects randomly assigned to the groups? What are the dependent and independent variables? Are the dependent and independent variables precisely defines? List the variables that are controlled. What important info is left out? Explain any problems with the research. What are the limited circumstances? Results What are the results? What is missing? Explain any problems with the results. Reasoning Problems Are there any problems with the reasoning? Explain. Does the evidence support the key points and the central idea? Explain. Does the author draw conclussions that go beyond the evidence? Explain.