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| Frage | Antworten |
| In sociology, what does the term 'modernity' refer to? | The era in which modern ways of thinking were dominant. |
| It is widely believed that modern ways of thinking originated in the 18th century, alongside which movement? | The Enlightenment movement. |
| Enlightenment thinking suggests that human societies don't have to be run simply according to tradition or according to religious beliefs. Rather, what could humans turn to for knowledge of the world? | Science and rational planning. |
| Enlightenment went hand-in-hand with the transformation of Western societies through what? | Urbanisation and industrialisation. |
| Who was perhaps the most influential sociological analyst of modernity? | Max Weber. |
| Weber believed that modernity involved three things. What were they? | 1. A move towards scientific rationality. 2. Gradual secularisation. 3. Bureaucratisation. |
| Above all, what idea is modernity based on? | The idea that humans can ensure progress by planning and shaping their own future, meaning they don't need to rely on tradition or trust in fate or divine intervention to make things better. |
| By the 1980s, sociologists were aware that enormous changes were occurring within modern societies. Which traditional 'modern' social characteristics were no longer an accurate reflection of British societies? | Strong social classes, clear gender roles and party-based politics, all of which were linked to an economic system based on industrial production. |
| Some sociologists believed that these significant changes had resulted in societies moving towards what they called 'late modernity' or 'high modernity'. Who put forward perhaps the most influential theory of late modernity? | Ulrich Beck. |
| To Beck, what is the central concern for all all societies today? | Risk. |
| Beck argues that the concept of risk has infiltrated our everyday lives. His thesis contains three elements. What are they? | 1. Risk society. 2. Reflexive modernisation. 3. Individualisation. |
| Firstly, according to Beck, modernity introduced a range of risks that no other historical period ever had to face. Importantly, what does Beck mean by 'risks'? | He doesn't use the term as a synonym to 'hazard', of which historical societies had many (e.g. plague, famine, etc). |
| The hazards faced by historical societies were seen as beyond the control of people, either caused by God or nature. How were the risks faced by modern societies different? | They were regarded as solvable - it was believed that industrialisation, public services, private insurance and arrange of other supports would minimise the possibility of risk. |
| However, in late modernity, risks are seen as spiralling away from human control once again. Why is this? | Because the risks are too complex for societies to deal with (e.g. global warming). |
| Why is the fact that risks are now beyond human control ironic? | Because the risks we now face are themselves the product of human action - humans create risks that get too big for them to control. |
| Furthermore, risks are no longer confined to one country. Why? | Because globalisation has reduced the effectiveness of national boundaries. As such, we now see diseases, pollution and terrorism travel between countries. |
| In the past, the rich could protect themselves from the hazards that were commonplace in society. How has this changed? | Today, a person's wealth is essentially irrelevant with regards to protecting them from the risks we now experience. For example, terrorists do not pick their victims based on their income - everyone is at equal risk of a terror attack. |
| How does Beck refer to class, and why? | As a 'zombie category', because it still appears in sociology but there is no life left in the concept. |
| The second element of Beck's thesis is that late modernity involves people becoming more 'reflexive'. What is meant by this? | Reflexivity refers to the ability of people to reflect upon their lives and to consider different ways to act or live. |
| The growth of reflexivity led to people becoming aware of the danger that they, as individuals, were at risk of. They began to seek ways of minimising this risk. As such, what becoming central to the culture of society? | Risk avoidance. |
| Beck argues that although it is our global, political and technological system that is the cause of the risk, there has been little attempt to confront the problems at this level. Rather, where does risk avoidance operate? | At personal and lower political levels. |
| The third and final element of Beck's thesis is individualisation. He links the move towards individualisation with what? | The move away from 'tradition' as an organising principle of society. |
| In modern society, most aspects of people's lives were taken for granted. Social position, family membership and gender roles, were all regarded as a 'given'. How has this differed in late modernity? | In late modernity, there has been a move towards individualisation, whereby all of these aspects are more open to decision-making. |
| Beck has been criticised by a number of writers. Which sociologist is sceptical of Beck's distinction between 'risk' and 'hazard', and why? | Bryan Turner. He argued that people have always faced risk and have always sought to minimise it in whatever ways were possible at the time. |
| A second criticism comes from Beck's argument that the response to risk is largely individual. Why has this been a point of contention? | Because a range of political movements have been formed to combat the risks we are experiencing in today's society. |
| Thirdly, Beck has been strongly criticised for stating that social class is no longer important. Which sociologist counters that rising inequality has meant that class has an increasing impact on citizens? | Beverley Skeggs. |
| Similarly, which sociologist argues that the social class of a person is still important because the rich and powerful are able to use their wealth to limit risk? | Anthony Elliott. |
| When and why did postmodernist approaches to sociology emerge? | They emerged in the 1980s, challenging traditional modern theories that sought to create an all-inclusive theory to explain society. |
| At their simplest, what do postmodern theories argue? | There cannot be any overachieving explanation of society because the idea of society exists as a reassuring 'narrative'. |
| In order to understand society as it is today, what do postmodernists argue we need to have? | A deep understanding of the of the media in creating an image of society that we then attempt to live out. |
| What is one thing the media has done that has had, according to many postmodernists, important consequences for the development of postmodern societies? | It has made the process of globalisation possible. |
| Postmodern approaches developed in the context of globalisation, which involves a decline in the significance of time and space. Which sociologist calls this "time-space compression"? | David Harvey. |
| With digital media, people in different parts of the world can communicate with one another very easily. Information, images, ideas and money can all move around the world almost instantaneously. What does this result in, according to Dominic Strinati? | Confusions over space and time. |
| As a result of this, the sense of being grounded in a particular time and place can be lost for individuals. What can this lead to? | Individuals finding it hard to develop and sustain a single, grounded sense of identity, and places finding it hard to retain a distinctive culture. |
| With all the information available, individuals can change their identity more easily. What is this resulting in? | Hybridity - the mixing of different cultures to create something new. |
| How have these changes impacted sociology, according to postmodernists? | It has become very difficult - maybe even impossible - for a single theory to explain social life or for a single plan to have the potential to improve society. |
| From this perspective, there is no such thing as progress. Why? | Because with so many different perspectives, what is regarded as progress by one perspective might be seen as deterioration by another. Because no perspective is superior to another, there isn't a right answer. |
| Who are the two main postmodernists? | Jean-François Lyotard and Jean Baudrillard. |
| How did Lyotard describe marxism and functionalism? | As 'grand theories' of society that are nothing more than elaborate stories. The purpose of these theories is to give comfort to people by telling them that some rational basis to society exists. |
| How does Lyotard refer to these 'stories'? | As metanarratives. |
| Postmodernists argue that sociological theory (and most other academic subjects) is a metanarrative belonging to which period? | The period of modernity. |
| According to Lyotard, why did we have metanarratives in modernity? | Because economic growth, and the scientific knowledge upon which it's based, are continuously expanding and we, as humans, find this impossible to make sense of. As such, we create these metanarratives to give ourselves a sense of control and a justification for the ever-expanding system. |
| However, in our postmodern society, two significant changes have occurred. Firstly, we have developed what Lyotard refers to as an "incredulity towards metanarratives". What does he mean by this? | We no longer believe that a single theory can be used to understand the world and form the basis for protecting it. Fascism under Hitler in Germany was ultimately rejected, for example. |
| Secondly, as a consequence of the incredulity towards metanarratives, the search for some sort of 'ultimate truth' has been abandoned and metanarratives have been replaced by "technical language games". What is meant by this? | These are less about searching for the truth and more about looking for 'what works' on a small scale. This may be, for example, through the development of new technology. |
| As such, it can be concluded that postmodern society isn't organised on the basis of a grand plan (as modern society was). Rather, what is it based on? | The production and exchange of knowledge that can be sold because it generally is of use. |
| Why does Lyotard welcome this change? | Because people no longer attempt to impose their theory on others. Instead, society has become more tolerant, more diverse and more creative. People can live as they so choose. |
| Like Lyotard, Baudrillard sees society as having entered a new, distinctive phase of postmodernity. However, what does Baudrillard place much more emphasis on in this process? | The role of the mass media. |
| According to Baudrillard, in contemporary societies, most people are uninterested in social solidarity and politics. Rather, what is the key characteristic of of our postmodern society? | Consumption of superficial culture, driven by marketing and advertising. |
| In postmodern society, people live isolated lives. What term does Baudrillard use to describe this? | The "death of the social". |
| Baudrillard believes that the media plays a central role in the death of the social. Why? | We now only share common consumption of the media, through which we experience the world. Our information and even our interactions are supplied by the media. |
| Baudrillard argues that rather than the media reflecting how people behave (as some sociologists argue), people increasingly reflect the media images of how they behave. What does this create? | Uncertainty as to what is 'real' and what is not. |
| Why are Western societies moving ever further away from social relationships and ever closer to relationships with their consumer lifestyles? | Because the majority of Western societies are now affluent - members of these societies are able to consumer a large number of commodities and enjoy a range of leisure activities. |
| Baudrillard note that the importance of objects has little to do with their actual use and much more to do with the meaning they carry. How does Baudrillard refer to these objects, and why? | He refers to them as 'sign-objects', because we are consuming the 'sign' they carry rather than the article/service itself. |
| Baudrillard argues that, in modern society, everything had a name or 'sign'. These signs therefore reflected reality. How has the media changed this in postmodern society? | In postmodern society, the media has created a world that exists 'just because' - signs exist that have no reality other than themselves. (e.g. A 'celebrity' is someone who is defined as such; their talent or lack thereof is irrelevant. They are a celebrity 'just because' they have been deemed as such). |
| What does Baudrillard call a sign that exists without any underlying reality? | A 'simulacrum'. |
| What does Baudrillard mean by 'simulacrum'? | This is a sign that represents something that doesn't exist. (e.g. Harry Potter World is a replicate of an imaginary world). |
| Baudrillard believes that our society is increasingly based on simulacra. As such, what does he say we now live in? | A 'hyperreality' - a world of image. |
| What ceases to exist in this hyperreality, and why? | Power. No one has power to influence anything anymore, because the signs that exist have no true connection to reality. |
| Which three sociologists identified a number of consequences for society, resulting from the development of postmodernity? | Stephen Crook, Jan Pakulski and Malcolm Waters. |
| Firstly, Pakulski and Waters believe that a 'death of class' has occurred. What does this mean? | People no longer feel like they belong to a class, and people who supposedly belong to the same class have little in common. |
| Likewise, Pakulski and Waters believe that race, gender and age are all much less important than they used to be. Why? | Because in a consumer society, what people choose to consume is much more important than they personal characteristics. |
| Secondly, Crook, Pakulski and Waters believe that social changes under postmodernism lead to what they call 'hyperdifferentism'. What do they mean by this? | This is where a large variety of cultures and cultural products are created - for example, music is no longer split into a small number of genres, but rather there is an almost infinite variety of styles and hybrid forms of music. |
| As a result of these two changes, what do postmodernists think of traditional sociological categories for defining different social groups? | They're no longer of much use for understanding society. |
| Postmodern theories have definitely identified some significant trends in contemporary societies. Give examples: | - The reduction in the significance of class, race, gender and age differences. -The growing importance of consumer society. - The increasing interest in constructing and changing identity. - The increasingly pervasive role of the media. |
| However, the theories have also received heavy criticism. What is Lyotard accused of making? | Sweeping generalisations about social change. |
| Additionally, his theory of metanarratives is contradictory. Why? | Because his theory is essentially a metanarrative, yet he states that we should reject metanarratives. As such, we should reject his theory. |
| While Baudrillard's theory on simulacra and hyperreality has some merit, many believe that he took it too far. Why? | He stated that the first Gulf War didn't take place and was just a series of media images. Obviously, there are millions of witnesses - not to mention casualties - that contradict this. |
| Greg Philo and David Miller argue that the emphasis on language and the media in many postmodern theories is dangerous. Why? | Because it can lead to the denial of very real suffering, inequality and injustice, caused by political and social issues. |
| Additionally, Philo and Miller's research suggests that audiences are perfectly capable of thinking about the reality behind television images. What do they argue audiences can distinguish between? | 'Media hype' and 'more authentic accounts'. |
| Finally, postmodern theories portray the world as one in which people are free to consume what they want, when they want. Which sociologists argue that this isn't actually the case, due to class inequalities and other social divisions? | Michael Haralambos and Martin Holborn. |
| Which sociologist produced some of the most recent and most interesting sociological theorising within neo-marxism? | David Harvey. |
| Why is Harvey's neo-marxism unusual? | Because he develops it within a framework that argues we have entered a postmodern era. |
| Postmodernity is seen as involving a fragmentation of society and a move towards image and superficiality in culture. Harvey agrees this has occurred, but disagrees as to why. What is his theory? | He believes that this isn't the result of the rejection of metanarratives, but instead is the result of economic changes in the 1970s and the response of capitalists. |
| What two changes in society resulted in significant shifts in capitalism? | 1. A move away from manufacturing and towards commerce, media and retail as the main employers. 2. Globalisation. |
| Harvey argues that these changes have also resulted in a 'time-space compression'. What does he mean by this? | Faster travel and digital communications have led to time and space becoming less important in social life. |
| How did capitalists respond to these changes? | They sought new sources of profit through the creation of whole new areas of commerce. |
| Harvey refers to this new area as 'flexible accumulation'. What does he mean by this? | Capitalists now make money through rapid changes in products (e.g. Apple have released 15 different iPhones in 11 years) and through the manipulation of identity (people are encouraged to constantly reinvent themselves through the use of clothing and services). |
| Why is flexible accumulation so beneficial to capitalists? | It means that there will be an unlimited demand for products, so capitalists will never stop making money. |
| What other significant social change has been very beneficial to capitalists, because it allows products to be made in poor countries then sold in affluent countries? | Globalisation. |
| However, Harvey does note that there have been many non-economic changes that have also impacted capitalism. Give an example: | Social class is no longer the dominant form of division between members of society - gender, ethnicity, sexuality and religion are all causes for division too. |
| Nonetheless, Harvey believes that the capitalist economic system and the social divisions it produces remain the primary cause for social change in the contemporary world. As such, why is he highly critical of Lyotard and Baudrillard? | Because they believe that modernist ways of analysing the social world are outdated and ineffective. Conversely, he believes that real changes can be studied and understood, and their consequences analysed. |
| How does Harvey differ from most postmodernists? | He doesn't dismiss the idea that progress is possible and doesn't believe that modern approaches to understanding social life should be abandoned. |
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