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Erstellt von Laura Louise
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| Frage | Antworten |
| What is cognitive psych? | -our PERCEPTION of world around us and how we INTERPRET THE SENSES -the ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES that allow us to focus on stimuli -how our MEMORY operates and how we retrieve information -our LANGUAGE PROCESSES that help us communicate -the processes that contribute to DECISION MAKING |
| Introspection | We can monitor our own thought processes to understand how they world Anecdotes, stream of consciousness, self-tests. Developed by Wilhelm Wundt. Also known as experimental self-observation. |
| Problems with introspection | inconsistent results, introspection may be inaccurate, some mental processes might not be amenable to introspection Low generalisability, testability and reliability not possible on children/animals/very ill people |
| Information processing | Our minds work like a computer. it is possible and desirable to study the internal mental processes that lie between the stimuli (in our environment) and the response we make. |
| Decomposition | cognition composed of multiple processes e.g multi store model |
| Representations | cognition acting on and transforming information |
| embodied cognition | our body shapes how we sense and act on the world; cognition has to be understood in this context. our visual sense provides information about the world that allows us to do things in it, such as walk through doors or catch balls. |
| Behaviourism | we cannot measure what is going on inside the mind, but we can measure behaviour responses to stimuli careful control of stimuli and measurement of behaviour, usually empirical experiment techniques. problems; doesn't explain everything, e.g. how we can form sentences we haven't heard before. |
| How to measure magnitude | Present stimulus(standard) assign perceptual value e.g 10 Present another stimulus, ask participant to rate magnitude with respect to standard |
| The psycho-physical function |
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| Steven's power law | P= KS^(n) P= perceived magnitude S= stimulus intensity K, n= constants (specific to stimulus) empirical law- fitted to data but not absolute |
| response compression |
e.g brightness, loudness, vibration on skin
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| response expansion |
e.g electric shock, taste of salt, muscle force
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| Perceptual threshold |
the level of stimulus it takes to go from not experiencing/feeling/seeing to experiencing/seeing/feeling the stimulus
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| Threshold finding methods | Method of limits Method of adjustment Method of constant stimuli |
| Method of limits | 1) start with the lowest intensity, feel yes/no? increase again and again till yes. create 1st threshold. 2) start with highest intensity, feel yes/mo? reduce again and again till no. create 2nd threshold. repeat till consistent, find average to determine final threshold -fast but may suffer order effects |
| Method of adjustment | participants adjust stimulus intensity themselves using e.g. turning nob. aiming for perceptual threshold. can be repeated with different starting intensities. -quickest, but more dependent on participant cooperation |
| Method of constant stimuli |
stimuli are pre-selected by experimenter and run in random order
psychometric curve is fit to results
every participant gets same experience
-stimuli can be presented multiple times, then mean score found
very precise but also slow.
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| Just noticeable difference (JND) | What is the smallest difference between two stimuli we can detect? present two stimuli on each trial & ask whether they are the same or different. |
| Relative threshold (for JND) |
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| Weber's Law |
JND is a constant proportion of the stimulus intensity
+/-20%
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| The muller-lyer illusion |
Lines with outward pointing arrow shafts tend to appear longer than inward ones.
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| Signal detection theory |
Perceiver's sensitivity can be distinguished from their bias. All perceivers have bias, and it will be influenced buy the costs and benefits of the response outcomes.
need to also ask when stimulus is NOT present.
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| Perceptual responses to a stimulus | -describing (indicating characteristics) -recognising (putting in specific category) -detecting (aware of barely detectable aspects of stimulus e.g slight movements) -perceiving magnitude- aware of size/intensity -searching- looking for specific stimulus amongst others |
| Olfaction | Sense of smell |
| Gustation | sense of taste |
| somatosensation | sense of touch |
| Tactition | Classic sense of skin touch |
| Equilibrioception | sense of balance and acceleration |
| Thermoception | sense of temperature |
| Proprioception | sense of body position and movement |
| Nociception | sense of pain |
| Interoception | sense of hunger, bladder, thirst etc. |
| Sensation | The passive process of bringing information form the outside world into the body and to the brain |
| Perception | the active process of selecting, organising and interpreting the information brought to the brain by senses. |
| Transduction | the conversion of physical stimulus/energy into electrical signal (neural activity) |
| Chemoreception | taste/smell chemicals in food/air |
| Mechanoreception | Physical touch pressure on cells or sound vibration in the air |
| Photoreception | light picked up by slight |
| Hearing | Sound waves are funnelled along the ear canal to the ear drum and on to the cochlea. Hair cells along the Basilar membrane pick up the vibrations. Different frequencies cause the Basilar membrane to vibrate at different points. The human ear can perceive frequencies between |
| vision | Light enters the eye through the pupil. Focussed (inverted) onto the retina. Retina is covered with photoreceptor cells. Rods (125 million for dim light) & cones (6 million for bright light). The area of highest density of cones is called the Fovea |
| Touch | Receptors within the skin respond to pressure. vibration and movement. Different types of receptor cells respond to different types of stimulation. Sensitivity varies across body part with density of mechanoreceptors. Can be measured using two-point discrimination technique. |
| Smell | Even more poorly understood than taste. Cells in the nasal cavity respond directly to chemical compounds. Approx 1000 types of receptor molecules located in olfactory receptor cells. Olfactory |
| Taste | Not well understood. About 10,000 taste-buds on tongue- not distributed by class of flavour. Taste buds are continually destroyed and replaced. |
| Somatosensory cortex |
Found in parietal lobe. each area of the body maps to a particular part of somatosensory cortex. different body parts are not represented evenly
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| Gestalt Laws | German for 'form' or 'shape'. Laws/principles: explain how parts are arranged into forms/objects perceived as a whole. Similarity, proximity, continuation, closure, simplicity(pragnanz). |
| Similarity |
Elements that look similar will be perceived as being part of the same form
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| Proximity |
Elements that are close together will be perceived as belonging together
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| Good continuation | We perceive lines as following a smooth course |
| Closure |
boundary isn't necessary for us to perceive form. When small elements are arranged in groups we tend to perceive them as larger figures. This can lead to us seeing illusory lines that do not exist.
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| Common fate | elements that move together tend to be grouped together |
| Symmetry | elements that are symmetrical tend to be grouped together. |
| Parallelism | elements that are parallel tend to be grouped together |
| Simplicity (pragnanz) |
We organise a scene according to its simplest form
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| Investigating feature representation | Idea: record from a single neuron, present different visual stimuli, check which ones elicit a response. |
| Optic nerve and thalamus | Responsive to dot-like circular visual stimuli: centre-surround organisation. Light centre and dark surround or vise versa. |
| Hubel and Wiesel | Measure response to lines in different places, at different orientations in cortex. Neural encoding is firing rate. For a single cell, highest firing rate is to a specific orientation in a specific position. Interpretation is that highest firing rate= greatest sensitivity |
| Edge detection |
the visual system can extract lines/edges from things that we see to process it.
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| Feature representation in visual cortex |
receptive fields are built up by combining receptive fields of neurons in the thalamus. Hierarchical processing. Receptive fields get larger as one ascends the hierarchy. Receptive fields get more complex.
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| Top-down cues | The context we perceive a stimulus in can change our perception of it. Our environment gives us clues when the stimulus is ambiguous |
| Top down vs bottom-up | Bottom up- processing the stimuli influences what is perceived (data driven). Top down- background knowledge and expectations influence what is perceived (knowledge driven) |
| Perceptual contancy |
Colour is processed in context. What is surrounding an object effects the perceived colour. Effects are strong
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| How do we resolve ambiguities? | We need to decide which visual scene caused the image on the retina. -Assumptions and cues are combined to make a best guess at what it is we're seeing. -Cues: features of the image that give us clues as to nature of stimulus. -Assumptions: expectations about what we will see or what different cues mean. |
| 3D shape cues |
We have learnt the physics of how light works in terms of shadows/high points. This allows us to interpret 3D in images
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| Two streams of visual perception | The 'what' pathway: shapes, objects. Ventral, to inferior temporal lobe. The 'where' pathway: Motion. Dorsal, to superior parietal lobe. |
| Challenges for cognitive neuroscience | -Complex systems (around 1 million neurons in 1 cubic mm of brain. -Signal to noise ratio (needle in haystack) -Between-individual differences -Within-individual differences |
| Cognitive neuroscience techniques | Brain structure: Anatomical dissection MRI Brain function: Single electrode stimulation EEG, ERP fMRI MEG PET TMS Neuropsychology: Data from individuals with brain damage |
| fMRI | when neurons are active, they burn energy. This is automatically replenished via the blood. Blood contains haemoglobin so its possible to detect blood flow. It is possible to distinguish between oxygen-rich vs oxygen-depleted blood. We can work out which parts of the brain are being used |
| Advantages and disadvantages of fMRI | +Tells us which parts of the brain are used in tasks +Reasonable temporal resolution +Get structural data within same session. -Claustrophobic, very noisy, movement artefacts -Can't have any metal -isn't a direct measure of activity. |
| MEG: Magneto-encephalography | Pyramidal cells of the cortex, when active, generate a significant magnetic field. MEG records theses fields. For both MEG and EEG the synchronous firing of 10,000s of neurons is required to produce a field which is large enough to measure. Magnetic fields are less distorted by scalp than electrical |
| Advantages and disadvantages of MEG | +excellent temporal resolution +good spatial resolution -Expensive -The inverse problem for finding what causes what. |
| EEG | EEG measures electrical signals generated by the brain through electrodes placed at the scalp. Signals are produced by partial synchronisation of cortical field activity and are measured in changes of voltage. Electrodes are placed on scalp, connected with conductive gel. An amplifier measured the difference in voltage between the active electrode and reference electrode. |
| Advantages and disadvantages of EEG | +very good temporal resolution +Less subject to motion artefacts & not claustrophobic. -Weak spatial resolution -Inverse problem- given a pattern of activity, how do you determine which brain regions caused it? |
| What method is best for spatial resolution? | 1St- fMRI 2nd- MEG 3rd- EEG |
| Epoch | EEG epoching is a procedure in which specific time-windows are extracted from the continuous EEG signal. These time windows are called “epochs”, and usually are time-locked with respect an event e.g. a visual stimulus |
| What is best method for temporal resolution | 1st- EEG & MEG 3rd- fMRi |
| PET =: position emission tomography | inject a tracer element into blood stream. Give some task that requires brain. Measure how much of tracer goes where in the brain. Stats are done on how this compares with the resting state. |
| Advantages and disadvantages of PET | +reasonable structural accuracy +direct reflection of activity +no motion artefacts +relatively pleasant -injection of very weak radioactive substance -no temporal resolution -expensive -may need to do MRI or CT as well. |
| TMS: Transcranial magnetic stimulation | non-invasive method causing depolarisation or hyperpolarisation of neurons in the brain (i.e increase or decrease activity) -uses electromagnetic induction to induce weak electrical currents in cortex. Can cause motor evoked potential (twitches) can stimulate temporary lesion of brain by preventing normal function. |
| Meta analysis of the efficacy of rTMS in psychiatric disorders | 40 studies on depression: 751 patients treated with rTMS. Applied to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Results indicate that rTMS to either left or right, has a medium-sized positive effect on depression. (with some minor side effects). |
| Advantages and disadvantages of TMS | +near portable +can stimulate or lesion -difficult to specify precise regions -only surface regions |
| Where was phineas gage's damage? | orbitofrontal and anterior medial areas of frontal lobes. |
| inattentional blindness | the failure to see visible and otherwise salient events when paying attention to something else |
| Attention as an information filter | Our attention acts as a filter, there are an infinite amount of things that we could be attending to in the environment at any time.. We filter out irrelevant information to our task goals and focus on what is most relevant. |
| Broadbent (1958) |
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| Treisman's development of broadbent's model |
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| Cocktail party effect | Attention focuses on meaning from environment. E.g hearing our name in someone else's conversation. Creation of meaning Evidence that information is not entirely ignored. |
| Spatial attention | Our attention focuses like a spotlight. Can be narrow or broad. Move around rather than focusing on everything at once |
| Target detection study Laberge |
5 items in different locations, participants looking for the specific item (stimulus), reaction times recorded on how fast it took participants to see stimulus. Reaction times were quicker when stimulus was in the more central location, slower in periphery
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| Exogenous cue |
Most likely to appear in the periphery. Visual appearance of something, e.g. object, flash of light.
Valid or invalid depending on if the cue appears in the same place as target stimulus or not
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| Endogenous cue |
Symbolic cue, usually appears in the centre of our vision. Our brain processes the symbol and will shift our vision accordingly. Valid or invalid depending on if the symbolic cue directs our vision in the correct manner or not.
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| Stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) | time between onset of first stimulus and onset of second stimulus |
| Inter-stimulus interval (ISI) | Time between offset of first stimulus and onset of second stimulus |
| inhibition of return | exogenous cue followed by a delay suppresses attention. Inhibition of return helps to facilitate attention switching |
| Navon task |
changing our spotlight of attention to narrow (local) vs broad (global) depending on task
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| Stroop task |
Integrating different stimulus features. Difficult to suppress our automatic tendency to read
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| Adleman et al | positive correlation between age and stroop-related activation in: left parietal and parieto-occiptal corticies left lateral prefrontal cortex left anterior cignulate |
| Attention capture | our attention can easily be captured by something that is different |
| Stare in the crowd effect |
We can easily find faces that are looking directly at us compared to finding faces looking in other directions
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| Global and local attention | we cannot see global and local motion at the same time. The right posterior parietal cortex plays an important role in directing attention between local and global information. Spatial and feature-based attention are closely related and this is processed in the anterior intraparietal sulcus |
| The simon effect | if info is presented to left ear, were are more likely to react if we are using our left hand. consistent representations are easier to compute. incompatibilities tax attention |
| Covert attention | attention in a separate location to our eye movements |
| Overt attention | attention to the location we are focused on |
| How do our eyes work? |
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| Saccades | fixation for 100-350 m/s then shifting fixation to something else. Most common type of eye movement. 3-5 every second |
| Microsaccade | large eye movements, aiming fo a particular location, however we may slightly over or under shoot, therefore we will need to make a minor adjustment (microsaccade) to get to the right location. |
| Smooth pursuit | movement of the eyes very steadily, e.g. when tracking something movement |
| Glissades | similar to a microsaccade, slight curve in the end of the eye movement to land in the right location. |
| Optokinetic nystagmus | rare. tracking when flicking back to the centre, e.g. when looking our of window in a vehicle. |
| Vestibular ocular reflex | keeps our eyes fixated on a location whilst out head is moving. |
| What can eye tracking tell us? | distribution of attention -what was noticed -indicates what is deemed important -order of importance |
| culture shapes how we look at faces |
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| task goal alters scan paths | what we see is linked to our cognitive goals |
| Heat maps |
give clear visual representation of vision paths. darker areas identify the main attention points.
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| eye tracking and reading | eye tracking can show us how we read. -word processing -sentence processing -comprehension we mostly fixate on the beginnings of words and sometimes miss smaller/joining words. |
| Eye trackers as research tools | The earliest eye trackers were built in late 1800's Older eye trackers used a bite bar as standard modern eye trackers use desktops or mobile glasses-like trackers |
| How do eye trackers work? | eyes are recorded with mini cameras. beams of infra-red light are reflected in the eye to see a clear image of pupil. 3-5 fixations per second measures saccades, blink rate and pupil dilation. |
| eye movements in sport | cricket: batsman is fixated ahead of the ball, where it will bounce, rather than following the ball itself. Their eye movements are ahead of the tracking of the ball. |
| Theory of mind 'mentalising' | being aware that other people have their own thoughts, feelings and decisions. autism diagnosis often associated with difficulties in unconscious theory of mind. |
| lab vs real settings | different patterns of attention depending on whether or not real people are present, or if you are in a 'real world' or lab based setting. |
| Profound skill is common | e.g. walking, talking, writing, reading, driving cars |
| Stroop task- what is automatic? | word-reading is automatic because of extensive practice doing this in life. Colour naming is a controlled process, we have to think about our answers. You only see that word-reading interferes with colour-naming if you run the right control conditions that make them conflict. |
| Serial search | aka feature search controlled, effortful, slow, adaptive |
| Parallel search | aka conjunctive search automatic, easy, quick, learn over extensive practice or innate |
| Skill is... | the development of habits through practice |
| Action slip | When habitual action intrudes when performing another task. e.g. putting milk in cupboard and cereal in fridge. |
| When automatic processing hinders performance | Novel task demands Mismatch between practised skill and environment Attentional lapse (or overload) |
| Cost-benefit analysis | Weighing up +'s and -'s All decisions are infinitely complex It is impossible to be 100% certain It is impossible to know all relevant information |
| Perfect decisions are impossible | Information is limited Information is ambiguous Time for decisions is limited Cognitive resources are limited |
| Heuristic | A heuristic is a rule-of-thumb -"principle with broad application that is not intended to be strictly accurate or reliable for every situation" Heuristics produce systematic errors ("biases") Heuristic- method of deciding |
| three heuristics which are responsible for a range of biases and errors: | -Representativeness -Availability- to judge the probability or frequency of an item by easy of which they come to mind -Adjustment and anchoring- people will make an estimate and then adjust. Irrelevant information can bias the initial estimate. Adjustments can be insufficient. |
| Insufficient adjustment | people estimated: 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8x9 = 512. But estimated: 9x8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1 = 2250 People anchor their guesses to the first couple digits of sum- they incorrectly anchor leading to insufficient adjustment |
| Irrelevant anchors | e.g. take last three digits of your phone number, add 400, call this X. Which year was Attila the Hun defeated? Peoples guesses are strongly effected by the irrelevant information |
| Framing | How the costs and benefits of a situation are described. Same things can be framed differently. framing affects which decisions seem reasonable. Peoples 'mental accounting' differs for gains vs losses, & risks vs sure things. |
| what makes a good heuristic | applicable in many circumstances doesn't require lots of information or effort on average works |
| optimal vs adaptive decision | optimal-takes in all information, 100% correct answer, takes very long time adaptive- on average serves well, gives quick answer |
| Recognition heuristic | relying on recognition can help us- we are more likely to have heard of larger cities as they will be more popular destinations. Therefore we are more likely to guess their population as bigger compared to an unknown city. |
| BIases are not mere errors | mistakes are one-off, systematic errors are consistent. biases are making the wrong choice but for a reason. visual illusions reveal normal mechanisms of perception- heuristic errors reveal normal mechanisms of reasoning |
| Reasons we might make systematic errors | using a strategy optimised for a different environment considering a (different) bundle of choices Using a different cost/benefit analysis |
| where will you see biases | will see them wherever there are heuristics, they are a normal part of cognitive processes. found in any decision that is made frequently |
| Meta-cognition | meta means 'after' or 'beyond' in greek. refers to dealing with an abstraction of an original concept. Thinking about thinking. |
| Confirmation bias | a preference for seeking information that can only confirm your existing beliefs, rather than contradict it. About active search for information, not just whether you believe information when you encounter it |
| Ways of making wason task easier | discussing in small groups making question less abstract |
| factors that affect ease of fluency (processing) | prior presentation stimulus properties individual differences |
| Mental contamination | People's opinions are distorted by their experience of the environment, and they mis-attribute these feelings to the stimulus not the actual cause. |
| Illusion of explanatory depth (IoED) | If you asked people on the street if they know how a refrigerator works, most would respond, yes. But ask them to then produce a detailed, step-by-step explanation of how it works and you would likely hear silence or stammering. Most people feel they understand the world with far greater detail, coherence, and depth than they really do |
| Dunning kruger effect | cognitive bias in which people of low ability have illusory superiority and mistakenly assess their cognitive ability as greater than it is. The cognitive bias of illusory superiority comes from the inability of low-ability people to recognize their lack of ability |
| Well defined problems | clear goal-state & constraints (jigsaw, win a football match) |
| Ill defined problems | no clear goal-state & constraints (how to live a good life, to succeed at uni) |
| functional fixedness | a side effect of which representations are primed |
| analogical transfer | learn about something, inspires you to think about other problems in a different way |
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