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O&E Term 2 Flashcards part 1
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- 1Behaviour =How an organism interacts with its environment.
- 2What is a proximate behaviour cause?Immediate genetic, physiological, neurological and developmental mechanisms determining behaviour.
(How an individual org's stuctures function) - 3What is an ultimate cause of behaviour?An evolutionary process that produced an animal's tendency to behave in a certain way.
It = why a species evolved the structures it has. - 42 approaches to studying animal behaviourPractical vs conceptual
- 5Tinbergen's 4 questions AB= CDEFProximate: causation + development
Ultimate: Evolution and Function
Causation = mechanistic explanation of how the individual's structures work.
Development - changes with age in an individual.
Function - current species traits. - 6Comparative psychology = study ofproximate causation
(mechanisms underlying behaviour, internal and environmental stimuli, development of behaviour, learning) - 7Ethology and behavioural ecology = study ofultimate causation
(what is the selective advantage of this behaviour) - 8An animal's repertoire of behaviour = a set ofadaptations that equip it for survival
- 9Characteristics of genetically determined behavouirs and their nameFixed action patterns:
Performed without learning
stereotypic
cannot be modified by learning - 10Ethologists = interested in what type of behaviour?Instinctive / species specific
- 11E.g. of a behaviour acquired at a certain timeImprinting
- 124 components of a communication systemSender
Receiver
Noise - anything that can interfere with the signal
Context - the situation - 13Define communicationAn action by 1 organism that alters the probability pattern of behaviour or another organism such that on average the sender or both the sender and receiver will benefit.
- 14What = the purpose of a display? And how have they evolved?To persuade.
To increase persuasive power (as opposed to info transfer) - 15What is the value to the sender/receiver in eavesdropping?Sender = 0/-
Receiver = +
(An unintended recipient picks up the message) - 16What is the value to the sender/receiver in ignoring?Both 0/-
- 17What is the value to the sender/receiver in manipulation?Sender = +
Receiver = 0/- - 184 types of signalDiscrete - digital, all or none
Graded - analogue, intensity varies w/ stimulus length.
Afferential - communicates info about the sender.
Referential - communicates info about an entity external to the sender. E.g. about the environment around them. - 194 ways to increase signal contextComposite signals - have a new meaning
Syntax - changing the sequence of a display
Context - some signals have different meaning in different context.
Meta communication - communication about communication whereby 1 display changes the meaning of those to follow. - 20Message =What the signal encodes about the sender
- 21Meaning =What the receiver construes about the signal.
(only inferred from the receiver response) - 22Opportunity costThe benefit the animal forgoes in doing one behaviour, by not being able to perform others during the same time interval.
- 23Cost vs benefit analyses...Energy expended to perform a behaviour vs the increased chance of being killed of injured in doing so.
- 243 ways signallers can decrease the risk of eavesdroppingMake them difficult to locate
Make them selectively unavailable to predators (e.g. using a colour they cannot see or a channel they cannot sense)
Direct your signal to specific individuals (e.g. squid can change colour on certain sides of their body to a mate). - 25What is the audience effect?The change on behaviour of an individual in the presence of onlookers. Different audiences will cause different alterations of behaviour.
E.g. Male vervet monkeys don't tolerate their young if the females are not around. - 26Explain how evolution of signals can be influenced by receiver bias.Behaviours and signals used may depend on the sensory systems available in the receiver.
If these have undergone selection for other functions signals may evolve with them to ensure they can be detected. - 274 features of a 'good signal'Detectability
Discriminability and memorability
Specificity - increased by using multiple sensory channels & stereotypy
Unambiguity - 285 sensory (signal) channelsChemical
Visual
Acoustic
Mechanosensory - touch + surface vibration
Electric field - 29What is the communication channel selected determined by?The species life history - where the signal will be used and how.
You want it to be degraded as little as possible so for e.g. in forests you use low frequency and no trills because echoes can interfere. - 30StereotypyStandardised ways of performing
- 31RitualisationExaggeration of particular movements associated with a display to decrease ambiguity.
- 32Describe the evolution of displaysSender sends a display
Receiver perceives it, makes a decision and produces a response.
If the response is beneficial the display is refined and reused.
(This = +ve feedback) - 33Describe a chemical signalPheromones
Very specific and info rich
Effective day and night over a range of distances
Variable volatility and diffusivity
Recipient must have the matching receptors so it is not easily intercepted.
But it cannot be changed rapidly. - 34As and Ds of a visual signalRapid delivery of info over long distances
Conveys the exact position of the signaller
Requires sufficient light.
Requires the receiver to be looking
Can be intercepted by other species. - 35As ad Ds of an acoustic signalNot as rapid as visual
Can be used in the dark
Can be transmitted in more complex environments like forests
Receiver doesn't have to be looking.
Can travel long distances
Frequencies can be changed to decrease ease of locating the signaller. - 36What are interspecific signals most used for?Predator deterrence
- 376 things for predator deterrenceFlash behaviour
Warning colours
Distracting patterns
Attention-grabbing actions
Playing dead
Alarm signals - 38What is flash behaviour?Sudden changes in posture intended to startle a predator
- 39What are alarm signals for?They let a predator know it has been detected and has lost its element of surprise.
- 40Interspecific signals can also involve _________ between 2 species.Co-evolution
- 417 intra specific signal functionsGroup spacing and coordination
Recognition
Alarm signals
Finding food
Giving and soliciting care
Agonism and social status
Courtship and reproduction - 42Deme recognition and an e.g.Is recognising members of their group to mate with, and their displays.
E.g. White-corwned sparrow adapted to mate with its local population. - 43Lordosis behaviourPosturing by some female mammals to show receptivity for copulation.
- 44Why is neighbour recognition beneficial?To prevent animals that frequently come into contact (and who have already established boundaries) from wasting energy responding intensely to them. This saves their energy for strangers when it is needed.
- 45Banner-tailed kangaroo defends territories by... And this is an e.g. of what kind of recognitionfoot-drumming
neighbour recognition - 46As of kin recognitionMinimised inbreeding and so increases fitness
- 47List 6 types of recognitionKin
Individual - dolphins
Neighbour - robini
species - to avoid infertile mating
Deme - sparrow
Class - social insects - 48Kin recognitionDifferential responses to close relatives
- 49Species recognition and an e.g.Avoids infertile mating between members of closely related spp.
E.g. drosophila courtship songs - 3 types. - 50A's of parent offspring recognition (type of kin recognition)Allows offspring to recognise their parents to receive resources from them.
- 51Bottlenose dolphins = an e.g. ofIndividual recognition in order to maintain social associations.
They use repeated complex signature whistles to announce their presence in a pod. - 52Alarm call e.g.Vervet monkeys
Leopard - climb trees
Eagle - look up
Snake - look down - 53Gannets = e.g. ofEavesdropping to find food by watching where other successful birds have been fishing and then flying to those areas.
- 54Herring gull = e.g. ofGiving and soliciting care signals
Offspring peck red dot on parent to signal to them to regurgitate. - 55AggressionAn act directed towards the discomfiture of another individual
- 56Agonistic behaviourBehaviour patterns used during conflict with a conspecific
(excludes play fighting and predator behaviour) - 574 causes of conflictLimited resources
Hetrogenous environment
Patchy resources
Aggregation of individuals - 582 ways to resolve conflictDisplays and fights
It changes depending on the importance of the resource - 59Role of displays in resolving a conflictAllows time for participants to decide whether to continue to a fight or back down, and indicates their resource holding potential
- 60Why are physical fights rare?Potentially high energy cost
Risk of injury
Most conflict can be resolved by a display, it is only when two opponents are very evenly matched that it escalates.
Even the victor may be injured or weakened and so is less likely to win a future fight again. - 613 ways to avoid conflict =maintaining a social space in territories
By sent marking and howling/dawn chorus.
Pre-fight displays
Dominance relationships - 62Factors affecting escalation of conflictEvenness of opponents
Persistence
Perception - one may try to seem as if it wants to continue and could do for a long time to cause the other one to back down, even if it may not be able to continue displaying for as long as it is implying.
Motivation - how much does it need the resource it is battling for?
Perceived resource value - 63Why = a resident more likely to win a conflict?Knows the resource value - where as it = more of a gamble for an intruder to spend energy trying to get it.
- 64Siamese fighting fish - 2 behaviour e.g'sEavesdropping - they will watch future opponents in fights and remember if they won or not, which affects their behaviour towards them.
Audience effect - more aggressive in front of potential mates. - 65Why do signals remain honest?Generally there is a cost to being dominant which requires for e.g. development of muscle and weaponry. This cannot be done without a genuine fitness advantage.
Signals have evolved so that only fit individuals can maintain them and bear their cost. - 66Direct fitnessfitness gained by producing offspring
- 67Indirect fitnessReproductive success of the individual's relatives
- 68Inclusive fitness =direct + indirect fitness
- 69Maximisation of inclusive fitness driveskin selection
- 70Hamilton's rule (animal behaviour)For an apparent altruistic behaviour to be adaptive the [fitness benefit of the behaviour to the receiver] x [degree of relatedness between sender and receiver] must be greater that the cost to the sender.
- 71Courtship = communication. It allows what form of selection to take place?Sexual
- 72Sexual selection drives the development of...Secondary sexual characteristics
- 73Individuals can improve their chances of reproduction by:Competing successfully to survive and gain resources = Natural Selection
Competing successfully for a mating opportunity - Sexual Selection - 74Intra-sexual selection includes characters thatAid competition within 1 sex for access to the other.
(intra-sexual selection = competing with same sex rivals for mates) - 75Inter-sexual / epigamic selection includes characters thatEnhance attractiveness of individuals of 1 sex to the other.
(Inter-sexual selection = the female choice/competition to attract females. Influenced by displays, plumage, colour etc) - 76Post-copulatory sexual selection =Competition between sperm within the female.
- 77Sexual selection = due toparental investment
They want to get the best mate to make the most out of the energy they spend. - 78Why are females more choosy than males?Females invest more and have a limited number of eggs (and so mating opportunities) as opposed to an unlimited number of sperm and mating opportunities in males.
Eggs are therefore more valuable than sperm.
Also females are certain they are the mother but males are not certain they are the father so less likely to invest as much energy. - 79E.g. of sexually selected characteristics conflicting survivalDeer antlers being very large and energetically expensive.
Bright plumage can be conspicuous and attracts predators - but = an indication that you = fit enough to cope with the increased risk. - 805 functions of courtshipSpp, deme, class, indiv recognition
Male attraction
Mate choice - enables quality assessment
Synchronised reproductive behaviours
Maintenance of long-t bonds - 814 things displays can signifyHealthier
Better territory
Enhanced parenting potential
Good genes - 82Courtship displays can involve aditional materials e.g.Nest building materials
Bright objects signifying something
Nuptial gifts - 83Describe an example of a deceptive courtship displayFemme fatale firefly
Performs a sp. specific flash pattern of a smaller firefly species.
The males of that species are attracted to it and the femme fatale species eats the male.
But makes of the larger sp. now do this as well so the female thinks they are food. The large male then switches to its own pattern and confuses the female long enough to mate with her. - 84Complex communication e.g.Waggle Dance
Alternating half circles to the left and right with vigorous waggling of the abdomen in the straight run in between.
The direction of the food relative to the sun = the direction of the straight run relative to gravity.
So the angle of the straight run indicates the direction of the food relative to the sun.
Number of waggles / duration of the straight run = distance from the food. - 85E.g. of transferred habituationvervet monkeys habituated to their alarm call if they are habituated to the alarm of the superb starlings.
- 86Is there proof that other mammals can use language?No, but they can learn to combine symbols and words to achieve goals.
- 87Describe Jack and Jill behaviour2 pigeons
1 would press 'what colour?' button
Other was trained to respond to a hidden colour and press the appropriate coloured button.
Jack would see that colour and hit the thank you button.
they are then rewarded with food. - 88Displays =Behaviour patterns specially adapted to serve as social signals
- 89Conspicuous body structures may have evolved forReducing ambiguity and uncertainty of response
- 90Complex communication exists inInsects, birds and mammals
- 91Some of the most elaborate displays = inconflict and courtship
- 92Courtship displays = driven bySexual selection
- 93Energy is inversely proportional towavelength
- 94PS equation6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
- 95What things can happen to a photon hitting a leaf?1. Bounce off
2. Scattered / reflected
3. May pass straight through
4. May be absorbed and add energy to a molecule - 96Light reactions produceO2
NADPH
ATP - 97The Calvin cycle uses ___ and produces ____.ATP and NADPH and CO2
Sugars - 98Role of NADPHGenerated from the electron transport chain and then used to reduce carbon dioxide into sugars.
- 99Calvin cycle = in thestroma
- 100Calvin cycle does whatUses ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to G3P
Also returns ADP and NADP+ to the light-dependant reactions. - 101Antenna complex =Arrangement of pigments
(includes LHC's) - 102Photosystem =Large multi-protein complex containing a core reaction complex and an antenna complex.
- 103Absorbance spectrum = close to theaction specturm
- 104Difference between cyclic and non-cyclic PSCyclic = only ATP produced
Linear = ATP and NADPH - 105Structure of a chlorophyll moleculeLarge
Mg in the middle
Bound by N's - 106Photosystem reaction centre containsA pair of special chlorophyll molecules which lose electrons when excited.
- 107PS final electron acceptor =NADP+
- 108Emerson effect =the enhancement on rate of PS when exposed to red (670nm) and far-red (700nm) light.
When simultaneously exposed to both rate of PS is much higher than the sum of the rates when exposed to either 670/700nm light individually.
This is evidence that the two photosystems cooperate. - 109Linear light-dep PS flowPSII -> ETC -> PSI -> NADP+ reductase, producing NADPH
- 110Which photosystem = associated w/ photolysis of water?PSII
- 111Cyclic PS begins and ends atPSI
- 112Why is there cyclic PS?Because the Calvin cycle needs more ATP than NADPH
- 113Protons of the PS ETC are flowing from where to where?Thylakoid lumen -> stroma
- 1143 things that contribute to the proton gradient for PSPhytolysis of water
H+ pump in the thylakoid membrane
NADPH reductase - 115How are green and purple bacteria different to plants in their PS?They have 1 photosystem and cannot form O2.
Cytochrome bc1 complex uses electrons to reduce NAD+ (rather than NADP+)
Oxidised chlorophyll must be returned to its original state by oxidising an inorganic substrate like H2S (rather than water replacing the excited electrons). - 1161st product of calvin cycle =3PG
- 117The 3 processes of the calvin cycleFixation of CO2
Reduction of 3PG to G3P
Regeneration of RuBP - 1183CO2 = _ G3P And where do they go?6
1 leaves to make sugars
5 are used to regenerate RuBP - 119What changes in pH does light cause and how does this affect RUBISCO?Light causes protons to be pumped into the thylakoids from the stroma, so stromal pH increases.
This favours activation of RUBISCO. - 120How does electron flow affect Calvin cycle enzymes?From PSI electrons flow to ferredoxin and rateher than this passing them on to reduce NADP+ they can be apssed to Thioredoxin enzyme.
They break its S-S link and activate it. Thioredoxin can then pass them to 4 other enzymes in the carbon fixation pathway. - 121If O2 is abundant how does this affect rubisco and PS?Rubisco becomes and oxygenase and adds O2 to RuBP to form 2C phosphoglycolate as well as 3PG so photorespiration occurrs in order to retrieve the carbon from the phosphoglycolate but 1/2 mols of PG is still lost as CO2.
Therefore if O2 is abundant PS efficiency is decreased. - 122Photorespiration equation2(2-PG) + O2 -> 3PG + CO2
- 123What plants perform photorespiration?C3
- 124RUBISCO has a higher affinity for O2 or CO2?CO2
- 125C4 cycle uses what to concentrate CO2 around rubisco?Spatial separation
- 126CAM plants use what to concentrate CO2 around rubisco?Temporal spearation
- 127C4 cycle in C4 plants occurrs in which type of cell?Mesophyll
- 128In C4 plants which cell does the calvin cycle occurr in?Bundle-sheath cell
- 129PEP carboxylase caatalyses..PEP (3C) + CO2 -> oxaloacteate (4C)
- 130CAM plants store malate inVacuoles
- 131What do CAM plants do in the day?Use up malate stores and convert it to pyruvate and then starch by the calvin cycle.
- 132What do CAM plants do in the night?Take in CO2 from the atmosphere and with PEP (from chloroplast stores) fix it in oxaloacetate that is made into malate to be stored for use in the day.
- 133CAM-idling =stomatal closure over the whole day in severely stressed plants
- 134CAM-cyclingNo nocturnal stomata opening, CO2 is instead recycled from respiration.
- 135Facultative CAMOptional use of CAM cycle in C3/4 plants.
It typically occurs under drought-stress conditions. - 136What does rubisco activase do? And what is it activated by?It lowers the inhibition of rubisco cause by sugar phosphates.
It is activated by light. - 137Why is the C4 cycle beneficial?It reduces photorespiration and water loss in hot climates.
- 138Primary CO2 acceptor for C3 plants and C4 and CAM?C3 = RuBP
C4 and CAM = PEP - 139More photorespiration in C3, C4 or CAM?C3
- 140Calvin cycle used in C3, C4 or CAM?All of them.
- 141Describe a more mewly discovered C4 cycleCan be with dimorphic chloroplasts in the same cell.
The CO2 is concentrated in the vascular region and taken into the cytosol external region. - 142Ferredoxin-Thioredoxin control system operates toLink light to the regulation of other chloroplast processes.
This reduces waste of resources produced. - 143Light compensation pointNo net CO uptake or loss
- 144Light saturation pointMax rate of PS where light ceases to be the limiting factor.
- 145Adaptations to lightExcessive light -> leaves may change their angle to be steeper and deflect more, and chloroplasts may become more elongated, as well as more of them.
Also more cells are packed in to the same area (by elongating) and they have more RUBISCO protein. - 146Shade plants perform better in the period before thecompensation point.
- 1474 responses to increasing light fluxes by plants (Photoprotection)Decreased absorption - change leaf inclination
Thermal energy dissipation
Removal of ROS by superoxidase dismutase etc
Inactivation of PSII
After these mechanisms can no longer cope you go into photodamage. - 148Why does a sun leaf go into photodamage zone at a lower light flux at a lower temperature?Because a lot of the photoprotection mechnisms are enzyme dependant and these work more slowly at a lower temperature.
- 149Shade leaf vs sun leaf in terms of their range of ligh flux in the PSic zoneSun leaf has a much larger PSic zone / higher tolerance in a wider range of light flux
- 1503 ways a leaf dissipates heatLong wavelength radiation
Conduction and convection
Evaporative / latent heat loss - 151Dynamic photoinhibitionWhen moderate excess light decreases quantum efficiency (decrease from optimal R. of PS at the start) without reducing the maximum rate.
- 152Chronic photoinhibitionHigh levels of excess light decreases quantum efficiency and maximum PS'ic rate.
- 153Dangerous ROS's that come about as a result of excess light absorptionTriplet state of ChI, superoxide, singlet oxygen, H2O2, OH radical.
- 154What does Zeaxanthin do, what is it made from, and why?It binds to proteins in PSII and changes the conformation of light harvesting proteins so that light is not transmitted to the reaction centre and is instead dissipated as heat.
It is made from violxanthin going to antheraxathin to zeaxanthin in high light. - 155xanthophyll cyclecauses violxanathin to accumulate in low light and zeaxanthin to accumulate in high light.
So zeaxanthin follows light distribution and violxanathin is indirectly proportional to light. - 156When zeaxanthin peaks what happens to PS efficiency?Decreases as not all the energy is going into electron transport, some is being dissipated as heat.
- 157Flavenoids = naturalSuncream
- 1583 things that protect plant cells from UV injuryEpicuticular waxes
Cartenoids
Flavenoids - 1596 factors affecting fate of solar energyCoulds
Air-ice interactions
Volcanic gasses and particles
Air-ocean interactions
Net long and net short wavelength radiation - 160Thermohaline circulation =Localised separation of surface and deep water currents.
- 161Thermohaline circulation = AKA...Meridional overturning circulation
MOC - 162Describe one of the major drivers of THC in the Labrador seaDeep water forms when cold dense water sinks
Water is transported to high latitudes of NA by NA drift.
Surface = more saline b/c when it travelled up through the tropical there was high evap.
This freezes lower than 0 degrees
Freezing to produce ice further increases salinity.
Its density increases and it sinks to form the north Atlantic deep water. - 163What 3 aspects of orbit affect climate?Eccentricity (more eliptical or circular)
Precision - axis 'wobble'
Obliquity - axial tilt - 164Why does higher CO2 in the atm not increase PS rate?Because after an extended period of high CO2 they start to adapt and initial PS rate increase is not maintained.
E.g. lower stomal density or smaller opening to increase water efficiency. - 165Water efficiency =CO2 assimilated / water lost
- 166Water is most dense at4 degrees celcius
- 167Fresh water vs salt waterFresh = higher turnover, less saline, lower diversity
- 168Why does fresh water have lower diversity than salt?Time
Oceans have been present uninterrupted for more years, whereas freshwater sources have more change and disruptions. E.g. can dry up and reform. - 169What affects dispersal and colonisation of freshwater sourceS?Glacial periods
Changes in geomorphology causing: formation of ox bows; change in crust creating new depressions; landslides blocking streams to form new ponds or lakes. - 170Fresh water life dispersalLifecycle stages must be resistant to dessication and eggs may be dispersed by insects or the wind.
Most need to stay in the water. - 171Lake hydroserePlant succession water -> littoral vegetation -> wetland -> land
- 172fresh water compositionInfluenced by geology and soil
SO2 and CO2 dissolved in it. - 173Igneous vs sedimentary rock buffering capacityIgneous low
Sedimentary high - 174Igneous rockTight intimate mix of crystals
Few soluble ions released
Dilute in ionic composition - 175Sedimentary rockJumbled particles
Often porous
Abundance of CaCO3
Soluble ions released. - 176Do larger lakes have higher or lower ionic composition?Higher
- 177N in water is fromN fixation
- 178S in water is fromrain
- 179Ca, Mg, Na, K & P in water are mainly fromWeathering
- 180EutrophicationIncreased primary production due to increased nutrient levels.
- 181Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic HypertrophicNutrient levels =
Low, medium, high or very high - 182Typical oligotrophic area =Upland area of river catchment on igneous rock.
- 183Oxygen solubility is ________ related to tempInversely
- 184Lotic = __waterRunning
- 185Lentic = ___ waterStanding
- 186Lotic vs lenticLotic = unidirectional not variable, variable size but usually shallower and narrower than lentic, well mixed and isothermal as opposed to stratified, higher amounts of suspended material because of currents, allochthonous - org matter from outside the system as opposed to autochthonous.
- 187Source of energy for lotic systemExternal detritus
Mostly streamside vegetation called course particulate organic matter, CPOM - 188Describe a eutrophic systemHigh SA:V
Heavy algae growth
Phytop concentrated in the upper layer make it appear murky
Turbidity restricts light penetration limiting surface productivity
Org matter drifts to the bottom
High decomposition depletes O2
Shallowness aids nutrient recycling which causes positive feedback and leads to the system's extinction. - 1897 ways a lake can be formedRetreating glaciers
Deposition of silt in streams
Cut off meanders
Shifts in the earth's crust
Craters of extinct volcanoes
Human activity - 190The three lake layers:Epilimnion
Metalimnion
Hypolimnion - 191Mixing in lakes occurrs in which seasonsSpring and autumn
- 192In winter how can you describe lake stratification?Inverse
- 193In summer is lake O2 low or high? And what are the exceptions?Low
Deep oligotrophic lake; low demand for O2 in hypolimnion so it isn't depleted.
Clear lake; light penetrate below the thermocline so O2 can be higher in deep water due to PS. - 194High pelagic:littoral ratio - dominated byPhytoplankton
- 195Low pelagic:littoral ratio - dominated byMacrophytes
- 196During which seasons do phytoplankton increase and decrease?Increase in spring with mixing
Decrease in summer due to stratification and rapid depletion of nutrients. - 197Nekton =fish that = able to swim independently of the current.
- 198Profundal = more simple or complex communities?Simple
- 199Littoral vs profundal benthosLittoral = heterogeneous, warmer, more O2, more intrinsic food, more microhabitats, higher sp richness: many insect larvae and fish.
- 200How are sponges adapted to lotic systems?Attach to substrate
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- Year 1 Uni (O&E) Karteikarten am O&E Term 2 Flashcards part 1, erstellt von J000D97 am 10/04/2016.
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