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Flashcards by Em Maskrey, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by Em Maskrey
almost 7 years ago
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| Question | Answer |
| Which sociologist conducted a content analysis of news items over several decades to uncover media representations of minority ethnic groups? | Teun Van Dijk. |
| Van Dijk found that news representations of ethnic minorities could be sorted into three stereotypically negative categories. What are these categories? | 1. Ethnic minorities as criminals. 2. Ethnic minorities as a threat. 3. Ethnic minorities as unimportant. |
| Firstly, ethnic minorities are regularly presented as criminals. From his content analysis of news output, which sociologist found that the link between race and criminality "remains a high-profile theme"? | Ian Law. |
| Which sociologist found that nearly 50% of news stories concerning black youths dealt with them committing crime? | Mike Wayne. |
| Which sociologist found that violent crime is portrayed as endemic within ethnic communities? | Kjartan Sviensson. |
| Secondly, ethnic minorities are regularly presented as a threat. Recently, which three groups appear to constitute the greatest 'threat' to the UK, according to media outlets? | 1. Immigrants, who are threatening due to their 'numbers' and supposed impact on resources. 2. Asylum seekers and refugees, who supposedly abuse the welfare state. 3. Muslims, who are the 'enemy within'. |
| Which sociologist argues that Islam has always been demonised and distorted by the media, and is presented as a threat to British values and our security? | Elizabeth Poole. |
| Other studies confirm the Islamaphobic nature of media content. According to Brian Whitaker, how does the media present Muslims? | As "intolerant, misogynistic, violent or cruel...strange or different". |
| Which sociologist found that over a third of stories regarding British Muslims focused on terrorism, and a third focused on differences between the Muslim community and British society? | Kerry Moore et al. |
| Saied Ameli et al state that media discussions around the issue of wearing the hijab and veil is also problematic. Why? | Journalists often depict such clothing as a patriarchal and oppressive form of control that exemplifies the misogyny of Islam and symbolises the supposed subordinate position of Muslim women. |
| Ameli et al argue that the negative language used to describe women who wear such clothing reduces them to victims. What do journalists ignore, and why? | The fact that many women choose to wear such clothing, and the actual everyday challenges that they face due to this choice. Amelia et al claim that this is because journalists only want to see such people in the context of a repressive form of Islam. |
| According to Fuad Nadhi, how does this typically hostile and careless news coverage impact Muslim audiences? | It destroys their trust of British media. |
| Thirdly, ethnic minorities are regularly presented as somehow less important than white citizens. What does Ligali, the British African pressure group, argue about the news coverage black victims of crime receive? | Black victims of crime are not given the same amount of attention by the news media as white victims of crime. |
| Soon after Ligali made this claim, which high profile individual publicly agreed with them? | Sir Ian Blair, the Metropolitan Police Commissioner. He stated that institutionalised racism characterised the British media's reporting of violent crime. |
| Some sociological studies indicate that when members of ethnic minority groups do appear on television, they experience two institutional problems. What are they? | 1. They are often shown in stereotypical low-status roles. 2. They are appearing because of tokenism. |
| Which former BBC executive, claimed that broadcasters overcompensate for the lack of executives, producers, directors and writers from minority ethnic groups by putting too many black and asian faces on screen, regardless of whether they authentically fit the programme? | Samir Shah. |
| In this sense, how can such black and asian actors be regarded? | As props, playing 'black' or 'asian' roles in which their attitudes, behaviours and interactions are shaped by their ethnic identity. |
| Which sociologist found that ethnic minorities rarely identify with the nation's TV culture because it offers little space for their interests and identities? | Tony Bennet et al. |
| What are the three theoretical perspectives on media representations of ethnicity explored in this chapter? | 1. The pluralist perspective. 2. The marxist perspective. 3. The hegemonic marxist perspective. |
| How do pluralists regard the media and its professionals? | They regard the media as reflecting the social world in an objective manner, and journalists as watchdogs of public interest. |
| Additionally, they claim the media is shaped by the market. As such, how do pluralists respond to the claim that media representations of ethnic minorities is unfair? | They believe that problematic representations of ethnic minorities reflect the real fears of the predominantly white audiences of certain media outlets. |
| Pluralists believe outlets simply act in the interests of their readers. Following this line of thought, what do pluralists claim dissatisfied audiences can do? | Opt against buying these newspapers and purchase another that portrays ethnic minorities in a neutral or positive way. |
| However, why can this view be criticised? | Many white people may not have contact with members of ethnic minority groups. The media, as their only source of information, increases their bias. The media therefore isn't mirroring the audience's anxieties, but actively creating and shaping them. |
| Marxist sociologists believe that the media is an ideological apparatus functioning to divide and rule the working class. How does Stuart Hall apply this to media representations of ethnic minorities? | Hall states that ethnic minorities may be victim to media moral panics - the media plays on white working-class fears that processes such as immigration and radicalisation are more problematic than the major inequalities in income distribution and poverty. This divides and distracts the working class. |
| However, evidence for this is limited. Which sociologist found some anecdotal evidence that certain tabloid owners, editors and journalists subscribe to racist views, but concluded that this is most likely a very small proportion of media professionals? | Merris Hollingsworth. |
| Finally, the marxist theory of media representations of ethnic minorities can be criticised for failing to recognise how diverse the media marketplace really is. Why can this diversity be used to criticise marxists? | It is unlikely that the media as a whole, or even particular sectors of the media, are pursuing the same ideological goal. |
| Hegemonic marxists make several interrelated points that may explain why mass-media representations of ethnic minorities tend to be negative. Give examples: | - Most media professionals are white. - The representations of minorities are a product of economics, not racism. - Media professionals do not want to alienate their (predominantly white) audience. - White experts and sources are considered more reliable. |
| When examining how the media represent social class, four classes can be identified. What are they? | 1. The upper class. 2. The middle class. 3. The working class. 4. The underclass. |
| According to neo-marxists, how are the upper class represented by the media? | The monarchy, the upper class and the extremely wealthy generally receive positive press and are portrayed as deserving of their position. They are rarely shown in a critical light, nor is serious attention brought to the inequalities in wealth and pay. |
| Popular films and TV programmes tend to portray members of the upper class in either an eccentric or nostalgic way. Give an example: | In Downtown Abbey, an idealised picture is painted of a ruling elite characterised by honour, culture and good breeding. |
| The media rarely focuses on inequalities of wealth. However, pluralist argue that media representations of the rich are justified for three reasons. What are they? | 1. The media believes in meritocracy and thus see the rich as deserving of their wealth. 2. Such representations may encourage people to work hard so they can attain such rewards, helping the economy. 3. The focus on finance may just reflect the importance of such sectors of the economy. |
| Some sociologists claim that the middle class and their concerns are overrepresented in the media. There isn't much sociological research into this, but three observations have been made. What is the first? | 1. In general, the middle class are over-represented on TV. 2. A lot of newspapers and magazines target the middle class. 3. Most of the creative personnel in the media are themselves middle class. |
| Marxists claim that mass-media representations of the working class are used to support capitalist ideology. What does Nic Newman note about the number of situational comedies, TV dramas an films in the past decade that focus on the everyday lives of the working class? | There have been very few, despite the fact that this group constitutes a significant section of society. |
| How does Owen Jones describe the media coverage of working-class people? | As a middle-class assault on working-class values, institutions and communities. |
| What does Jones say many middle-class journalists suffer from? | A "liberal bigotry": they assume that all working-class people are feckless, promiscuous, foul-mouthed racists who hate ethnic minorities, refugees and multiculturalism. |
| The reporting of issues such as poverty, unemployment and single-parent families usually indicates that what is is the main cause of such social problems? | Personal inadequacy, rather than the failure of government policies or poor business practices. |
| Which two sociologists note that newspapers aimed at working-class audiences assume them to be uninterested in the serious analysis of either the political or social organisation of our society? | James Curran and Jean Seaton. |
| What do newspapers such as The Sun and The Daily Star assume working-class audiences want to read about? | Celebrity gossip and lifestyles, trivial human-interest stories and sport. |
| Marxists believe that trivial content is an attempt to do what? | Distract the working-class audience from the inequalities of capitalism. |
| In contrast, pluralists argue that tabloid newspaper audiences do indeed want to read trivial news stories - if they did not, the product would simply not be bought. It can be seen that such newspapers are indeed being purchased - in 2013, how many people read The Sun, either in print or online, every week? | Just under 13.5 million. |
| John McKendrick et al studied a week's output of mainstream media in 2007. What did he conclude about UK coverage of poverty? | It is fairly uncommon - the causes and consequences are rarely explored. |
| Stanley Cohen argues that journalists, entertainers and artists are hopeless at realistically reporting on the plight of the poor. What does he claim some sections of the media do? | Actually increase the suffering of the poor by commissioning shows that deliberately portray the poor as parasitic scroungers. In this way, they are reinforcing the common view that the poor are poor because of their own depravity. |
| In recent years, the media has begun labelling the working class as 'chavy'. What do Tracy Shildrick and Robert MacDonald suggest this implies? | It is another way of implying that the poor are undeserving of public sympathy. |
| Which sociologist argues that the media use discriminatory language to vilify and socially stigmatise those they consider to be 'white trash'? | Stephanie Lawler. |
| Audiences are encouraged to assume that specific representations in terms of image and behaviour can be applied indiscriminately to an entire age group. However, what do functionalists claim? | These representations are an essential part of the socialisation process because, alongside other agencies of socialisation, the mass media functions to provide children with the necessary values and norms required to be upstanding citizens. |
| Once children and youths have been instilled with the shared culture, what do media representations engage in? | 'Boundary maintenance' - they ensure that social boundaries aren't crossed by reminding audiences that certain types of behaviour will attract social disapproval and possible punishment. |
| British children are generally presented in the UK media in fairly positive ways. Content analysis of media products indicates that six stereotypes of children are frequently used by the media. What are they? | 1. Cute. 2. Little devils. 3. Brilliant (e.g. child prodigies). 4. Brave little angels. 5. Accessories. 6. Modern. |
| According to Katherine Heintz-Knowles, American television portrays children as primarily motivated by what? | Peer relationships, sports and romance and, less frequently, by community, school-related, or religious issues. They are rarely shown as coping with societal issues such as racism or with major family issues such as child abuse. |
| Heintz-Knowles found that most representations of children are positive and show them engaged in pro-social actions such as helping others. However, how many TV dramas depicted children as engaged in antisocial behaviours? | 40%. |
| However, what is one very noticeable feature of children's television that has occurred in the last 15 years? | There has been a move towards more realistic drama featuring issues from a child's, rather than an adult's, point of view. |
| Children are also represented in television commercials in ways which socialise them to become active consumers. Julie Evans and Joan Chandler argue that this has led to the emergence of what? | A new family power, which they refer to as 'pester power', in which the children train and/or manipulate their parents into spending money on consumer goods that will increase the children's status in the eyes of their peers. |
| According to Evans and Chandler, what is pester power creating? | Greater anxiety among poorer parents, who will often go into debt for their children's desires. |
| Sociological knowledge about media representations of children in the UK is actually quite limited. Due to most studies being conducted in America, what must we be aware of when examining the results? | There may be cultural differences in the way children are portrayed by the media in the USA and in the UK. |
| The limited numbers of studies that are available tend to generalise children as a whole. Why can this be criticised? | Because children's experience of both childhood and media representations of it may be subject to influences such as social class, gender, ethnicity and religion. |
| Furthermore, what do many of these studies fail to explore? | Children's interpretations of media representations. |
| Which sociologist found that only 1% of news items feature a young person's perspective? | Mike Wayne et al. |
| There are two very broad ways in which young people have been targeted and portrayed by the media in the UK. What are they? | 1. There is a whole media industry aimed at socially constructing youth in terms of lifestyle and identity. 2. Youth are often portrayed as a social problem, and they are thus seen as folk devils. |
| According to functionalists, media representations of youth do what? | Maintain and normalise boundaries of socially expected behaviour. Young people may be encouraged by peers to indulge in deviant behaviour and media representations remind such youths that they could be punished should they oblige. |
| How do pluralists respond to media representations of youth? | They believe that the representations merely reflect social anxiety - young people commit more crime than any other social group. They also state that criminal behaviour is more newsworthy in accordance with Galtung and Ruge's news values. |
| How and why are young people frequently labelled by older generations, according to interactionists? | They're labelled as a threat to social stability because they often challenge authority. Media representations and the moral panics that often result from these are attempts at social control. |
| What do the GUMG note about media representations of youth? | Because most journalists subscribe to a consensus view of society that places older people at the top of the hierarchy of credibility, the agenda for the reporting of youth is set by older people and is subsequently negative. |
| Finally, what do postmodernists argue about media representations of youth? | In a media-saturated postmodern society, negative portrayals are only a small aspect of media representations, which are actually diverse and pluralistic. They add that new media, which is primarily made by and for youths, often paints this age group in a positive light. |
| Research focusing on media representations of the elderly suggest that age is not the only factor that impacts the way the media portrays those aged 65+. According to Nic Newman, what other characteristics plays an important role? | Social class and gender. |
| It can be argued that some parts of the media industry devalues old age. For example, the emphasis on youth and beauty that can be identified in television, film and advertising implies what? | Ageing should be avoided at all costs. |
| Age Concern argues that the elderly are underrepresented across a variety of mass media. Where they are portrayed, representations are typically ageist, with elderly people being shown in three stereotypically negative ways. What are they? | 1. Grumpy. 2. Mentally challenged. 3. A burden. |
| However, recent research indicates that media producers may be slowly reinventing how they handle the elderly. Why? | Because of the 'grey pound' - producers have realised that this group may have more disposable income to spend on consumer goods than other groups. |
| Monica Lee et al found that representations of the elderly in advertisements are still fairly low - just 15%. However, how do the majority of these adverts portray the elderly? | As 'golden agers' who are active, alert, healthy, successful and content. |
| Why may this positive representation be unrealistic? | Because it does not reflect the wide range of experiences that people have as they age, such as the loss of status, poverty, loneliness and bereavement. |
| Media representations of age are important in shaping public attitudes towards particular age groups. However, research within this field is fairly limited - especially so for the very young and the elderly. What may this illustrate? | Society's tendency to disregard these groups as 'low-status' and less important. |
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