The "customary and traditional way of thinking and doing things which is
shared to a greater or lesser degree by all members and which new
members must learn...in order to be accepted into the services of the firm"
Culture as a shared meaning
Shared understandings of meanings about the organization,
its purpose, its members and how they should behave
Relates to values, beliefs and assumptions
Which are reflected in patterns in physical
artifacts, language use, symbols, rituals,
practices that have evolved over time
The "pattern of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered or developed in
learning to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, and that has
worked well enough to be considered valid and...taught to new members as the way to perceive.
think and feel in relation to problems" (Schein quoted in textbook)
Where can it be found
Most visible
Observable symbols; Physical layout and appearance
Logos
Uniforms
Rituals and ceremonies (performances with
beginning and endings, clear roles)
How do we find them?
Deliberate; meant to be
observed and meaning usually
clear
Can be 'hijacked' or 'subverted'
Place: Decor, furniture, offices, architecture
People: Physical appearance and attire
How do we find them?
Easy to observe by walking around but their
meaning can be difficult to interpret
Communication: jargon, patterns, stories
jargon. acronyms, metaphors, nicknames, etc
Patterns (like use of titles vs first names, etc)
Stories, legends, myths, jokes, often drawn from the organizaton's past
How do we find them?
Can listen to the way people talk although
may need some interpretation
Practices and behaviours
How does the organization regularly do the things it has to do?
Can be formal or informal
How do we find them?
Have to 'hang around' (conduct
ethnographic studies) but the meaning
may not be immediately obvious
Values, assumptions, feelings, and beliefs
Only by observing all previous aspects of
culture that we can derive this
Layout: assembly lines
Practices: people working mechanically
Communication: if a person isn't functioning well,
they are replaced
Core belief: Machine Metaphor
Layout: slides, video games, dogs, balls
Practices: people take breaks by playing ping pong,
getting a massage
Communication: "you can be serious without a suit"
Core belief: Playground Metaphor
May be deeply held, but people are unaware of how
they affect behaviour
May be 'espoused' rather than 'in use'; stated
but not enacted
How do we find them?
Ask questions but may not get
useful answers because people
Are unaware
Say what they think you want
to hear
Keep them private
Culture is self reinforcing
Beliefs and assumptions
form our concept of
'reality'
Influences how we perceive events
and how we interpret them
We take beliefs and assumptions
for granted -- often only noticing
them when we move to a different
culture
Least visible
How can it be managed, if at all
Critical
Both integrationist and differentiationist theories
are functional, i.e. look at culture from
management's point of view
Critical theory take a different approach --
looks at how employees are affected
Focuses on the way in which power
is embedded in culture
Especially interested in how strong
culture is a way to control employees
Functionalist
Integrationist
Using integrationist theory
Look for a dominant culture
Widely shared understandings
Consensus throughout the organization
Individuals with strong organizational commitment
Clear organizational boundaries between
who's inside and what's outside
Top down control of culture by leaders
The culture is seen as helping the organization to
function and to be profitable
Managing an integrationist culture
Managers "engineer" the
right type of culture via
Founders
Selection
Leadership
Socialization
Rewards and punishments
To improve organizational
effectiveness
Disadvantages
No theoretical basis or empirical
evidence for a relationship between
culture and performance
Failure of many 'excellent' companies
especially when market conditions change --
strong cultures may not change easily
When strong integrationist
cultures are found, they can
be dysfunctional
Successful companies do
not always have strong,
integrationist cultures
Advantages
A single, uniform strong culture is better
Allows people to work together: a common set of values, less need for rules
Makes organization stable; more culture is reproduced
Makes the organization more effective (functionalist)
Allows it to survive or thrive in the larger environment
External adaptation
Consensus on:
How organization operates in
its environment
Specific goals
Means to
accomplish those
goals
Criteria for measuring
results i.e. whether goals
are achieved
Repair strategies -- what to do
when things go wrong
"Holds" its members together
(culture acting like a social glue)
Internal integration
Consensus on:
Common language
Core values
Boundaries -- who's inside vs outside
Criteria for the allocation of
status, power and authority
Criteria for friendships
and relationships
Criteria for
allocation of
resources
Differentiationist
Organization is a cluster of
sub-cultures related to a particular
challenge, task, responsibility of a unit
or group
Consensus is found not at
organizational level but in sub
cultures
Relations among sub cultures can be
complementary, conflicting or independent
Boundary between "inside" or "outside" is permeable
Managing differentiationist sub-cultures
Middle managers should manage
sub-culture
Still sees management of culture as
possible and desirable; still functionalist
Comparing Theories
Integrationist
There is one unified culture,
which should be managed
centrally
Strengths
Patterns are easy to
look for
Convergence may lead to
committment
Some successful companies
have strong cultures
Can be managed top
down
Weaknesses
Patterns may not
tell the whole story
Convergence may
be dysfunctional
A strong culture may
not bring success
Not all organizations
are appropriate for a
single uniform culture
Differentiationist
We can expect multiple
sub-cultures, each of which
should be managed differently
Strengths
Emphasizes commitment
to the work group
It may be more
meaningful for individual
experience
It allows for adaptation
(because boundary for
inside/outside is permeable)
Allow more scope
for middle managers
to manage culture
Weaknesses
Not clear how different
sub-culture are going to
fit together
There may be
conflicts among
sub-cultures
Movement between
sub-cultures may
become difficult
Balkanization; sub-cultures
work for self interest rather
than common interest
Critical theory
Culture is a way of exercising control
over employees; it should be resisted
Strengths
Considers
negative effects
Shows the hidden ways in
which culture affects
individuals
Not having a
culture or
sub-culture is not
necessarily "bad"
Weaknesses
Not everyone perceives
culture negatively
Some control is inevitable
Cultural controls may be
less oppressive than other
controls