Geography Urban Environments

The characteristics of urban places are: 1) [blank_start]population[blank_end] [blank_start]size[blank_end], 2) [blank_start]specific[blank_end] [blank_start]features[blank_end], 3) [blank_start]predominant[blank_end] [blank_start]economic[blank_end] activities, 4) an [blank_start]administrative[blank_end] [blank_start]function[blank_end].

Factors for a good site for early settlement: readily available [blank_start]water[blank_end], freedom from [blank_start]flooding[blank_end] and other [blank_start]hazards[blank_end], [blank_start]flat[blank_end] [blank_start]land[blank_end]/levels to [blank_start]build[blank_end] [blank_start]on[blank_end], local [blank_start]timber[blank_end] [blank_start]construction[blank_end] [blank_start]materials[blank_end], [blank_start]sun-facing[blank_end] [blank_start]slopes[blank_end], good [blank_start]soil[blank_end] and [blank_start]pasture[blank_end] land, potential for [blank_start]trade[blank_end], [blank_start]defence[blank_end].

Land use: [blank_start]residential[blank_end], [blank_start]industrial[blank_end], [blank_start]for services[blank_end], [blank_start]open space[blank_end], [blank_start]recreational[blank_end], [blank_start]transportation[blank_end].

(Land Use in New York) [blank_start]Commercial[blank_end] area occupies less than [blank_start]4[blank_end]% of the city's land. There are two main areas, midtown and downtown Manhattan. [blank_start]Midtown[blank_end] Manhattan, the [blank_start]main[blank_end] [blank_start]shops[blank_end] (Fifth Avenue), [blank_start]theatres[blank_end] (Broadway), [blank_start]hotels[blank_end], [blank_start]landmarks[blank_end] (Empire State Building and Rockefeller Centre). [blank_start]Downtown[blank_end] Manhattan is the centre for [blank_start]finance[blank_end] and [blank_start]banking[blank_end], containing [blank_start]Wall Street[blank_end] and the [blank_start]Stock Exchange[blank_end]. Most of New York's [blank_start]3.6[blank_end] million jobs are in commercial areas.

(Land Use in New York) [blank_start]Industrial[blank_end] [blank_start]uses[blank_end] occupy [blank_start]4[blank_end]% of the city's land. It includes [blank_start]warehouses[blank_end] and [blank_start]factories[blank_end]. It is found primarily in [blank_start]South Bronx[blank_end], along either sides of [blank_start]Newtown Creek[blank_end] in Brooklyn and [blank_start]Queens[blank_end], and along the western shores of [blank_start]Brooklyn[blank_end] and [blank_start]Staten Island[blank_end].

(Land Use in New York) [blank_start]Low-density[blank_end] residences, the largest use of city land, are found mostly in [blank_start]Staten Island[blank_end], eastern [blank_start]Queens[blank_end], southern [blank_start]Brooklyn[blank_end] and north-eastern and eastern [blank_start]Bronx[blank_end]. In contrast, [blank_start]medium[blank_end] to [blank_start]high-density[blank_end] residential buildings (3+ dwelling units) contain more than [blank_start]two thirds[blank_end] of New York's housing units, but occupy only [blank_start]12[blank_end]% of the city's land. The highest-density residences are found in [blank_start]Manhattan[blank_end]. Four to twelve storey high apartment houses are common in the Bronx, Brooklyn and Queens. This shows that the [blank_start]closer[blank_end] the distance from the CBD (Manhattan), the [blank_start]higher[blank_end] the density in residences. As [blank_start]land[blank_end] [blank_start]values[blank_end] are higher when closer to the CBD, [blank_start]vertical[blank_end] zoning is commonly used in residential buildings near the CBD.

(Land Use in New York) [blank_start]Public[blank_end] [blank_start]facilities[blank_end] and [blank_start]institutions[blank_end] such as [blank_start]hospitals[blank_end], [blank_start]schools[blank_end], [blank_start]museums[blank_end], places of worship, police stations and court houses, are spread throughout the city, occupying [blank_start]7[blank_end]% of New York's land. [blank_start]25[blank_end]% of the city's open space is occupied by [blank_start]recreational[blank_end] uses, such as [blank_start]parks[blank_end], [blank_start]nature reserves[blank_end], [blank_start]cemeteries[blank_end] and amusement parks. [blank_start]8[blank_end]% of New York's land is classified as [blank_start]vacant[blank_end]. [blank_start]Staten Island[blank_end] has the most vacant land of more than 2100 hectares. [blank_start]Manhattan[blank_end] has the least, with less than 162 hectares.

The hierarchy of settlements (from the smallest to biggest): 1) [blank_start]dispersed, individual households[blank_end], 2) [blank_start]hamlet[blank_end], 3) [blank_start]village[blank_end], 4) [blank_start]town[blank_end], 5) [blank_start]city[blank_end], 6) [blank_start]conurbation[blank_end], 7) [blank_start]millionaire city[blank_end], 8) [blank_start]megacity[blank_end], 9) [blank_start]metacity[blank_end], 10) [blank_start]megalopolis[blank_end].

(Generalisations of settlement hierarchy) There are usually more [blank_start]small[blank_end] settlements than [blank_start]large[blank_end] settlements. Towards the [blank_start]bottom[blank_end] of the hierarchy, a limited range of [blank_start]low[blank_end]-order goods are provided to [blank_start]small[blank_end] number of people (threshold) living in the village and surrounding [blank_start]hamlets[blank_end]. In contrast, towards the [blank_start]top[blank_end] of the hierarchy, [blank_start]large[blank_end] urban area provide a large number of [blank_start]low[blank_end] and [blank_start]high[blank_end] order goods to [blank_start]large[blank_end] number of people, drawn from a [blank_start]wide[blank_end] area.

Megacities, cities with population of [blank_start]over[blank_end] [blank_start]10[blank_end] million, grow as a result of [blank_start]economic[blank_end] [blank_start]growth[blank_end], [blank_start]rural-urban[blank_end] [blank_start]migration[blank_end] and [blank_start]high[blank_end] [blank_start]rates[blank_end] of [blank_start]natural[blank_end] increase. Their age structure is usually dominated by [blank_start]young[blank_end] [blank_start]adults[blank_end], who migrate to cities in search for [blank_start]jobs[blank_end]. Thus the city grows not only through [blank_start]migration[blank_end] but also because of the high [blank_start]birth[blank_end] rates associated with the younger population. As cities grow, they [blank_start]swallow[blank_end] up nearby towns and cities, becoming [blank_start]multi-nuclei[blank_end] [blank_start]centres[blank_end]. Some megacities have population [blank_start]greater[blank_end] than the population of countries. They grow at relatively [blank_start]slow[blank_end] rates about [blank_start]1.5[blank_end]% per year, slower than medium-sized cities. By 2020, most megacities will be located in [blank_start]developing[blank_end] regions, 12 of them are in [blank_start]Asia[blank_end].

Issues with Megacities: High [blank_start]population[blank_end] [blank_start]density[blank_end], uncontrolled [blank_start]spatial[blank_end] expansion, severe [blank_start]infrastructure[blank_end] deficits, inadequate [blank_start]resource[blank_end] supply and [blank_start]hygienic issues[blank_end], [blank_start]ecological[blank_end] strain and overload, pollution, poor housing [blank_start]provision[blank_end], increasing [blank_start]wealth[blank_end] [blank_start]disparities[blank_end], high [blank_start]unemployment[blank_end] rate, traffic [blank_start]congestions[blank_end], social problems (e.g. increased [blank_start]crime[blank_end] rate).

There is a clear [blank_start]correlation[blank_end] between urban [blank_start]growth[blank_end] and [blank_start]economic[blank_end] development, but one does not necessarily cause the other. Urban places perform a number of important functions in the process of development: [blank_start]commercially[blank_end], [blank_start]industrially[blank_end], [blank_start]politically[blank_end], [blank_start]administratively[blank_end], [blank_start]socially[blank_end].

Ways urban places help development: Commercially: more [blank_start]trade[blank_end], which leads to [blank_start]economic[blank_end] growth; markets and [blank_start]exchange[blank_end] [blank_start]centres[blank_end] converting goods into [blank_start]cash[blank_end]. Industrially: more [blank_start]factories[blank_end], more goods produced resulting to higher [blank_start]GDP[blank_end]; provide a stimulus for [blank_start]development[blank_end], by [blank_start]attracting[blank_end] and paying wages for worker and attracting other [blank_start]industry[blank_end]. Politically: can provide a focus for civic and [blank_start]national[blank_end] [blank_start]pride[blank_end], allowing [blank_start]cultural[blank_end] [blank_start]integration[blank_end] (however, cultures might start [blank_start]conflicts[blank_end]). Administratively: larger urban areas provide economies of [blank_start]scale[blank_end] for activities such as [blank_start]health[blank_end] and [blank_start]education[blank_end]. Socially: provide [blank_start]leisure[blank_end] opportunities and can contribute to many of the above.

Functions of a settlement change over time

Factors that affect the size, growth and function of a settlement are: [blank_start]harsh[blank_end] environments, [blank_start]external[blank_end] factors, [blank_start]transport[blank_end] accessibility.

The [blank_start]Bid Rent Theory[blank_end] is used to explain the pattern of urban [blank_start]economic[blank_end] activities in cities. It shows that value of [blank_start]land[blank_end] varies for the different [blank_start]purposes[blank_end]. The land in the centre is the most [blank_start]expensive[blank_end], as it is most [blank_start]accessible[blank_end] to public transport and only small amount of land available. Land prices decrease away from the most [blank_start]central[blank_end] area. There might be secondary peaks at [blank_start]intersections[blank_end] of main roads. However, [blank_start]private[blank_end] transportation has made areas far away from the centre area more [blank_start]accessible[blank_end].

Label the following diagram.

(Retail Land Use) [blank_start]Out-of-town[blank_end] superstores and retail parks, built on [blank_start]greenfield[blank_end] [blank_start]suburban[blank_end] sites with plenty of [blank_start]expansion[blank_end] space and good [blank_start]accessibility[blank_end]. [blank_start]Superstores[blank_end] are large outlets close to [blank_start]residential[blank_end] areas with over [blank_start]2500[blank_end] square metres of shopping space, ample [blank_start]parking[blank_end] and good [blank_start]road[blank_end] access. A [blank_start]retail park[blank_end] is a cluster of [blank_start]hardware[blank_end], [blank_start]electrical[blank_end] and [blank_start]furniture[blank_end] superstores. Modern retailing sees the [blank_start]growth[blank_end] in these kind of retail stores.

(Retail land use) [blank_start]high-order[blank_end] goods in [blank_start]high street[blank_end] shops and [blank_start]department[blank_end] shops, located in [blank_start]central[blank_end] [blank_start]shopping[blank_end] areas: department stores, [blank_start]chain[blank_end] stores, [blank_start]specialist[blank_end] shops, [blank_start]pedestrianised[blank_end] malls. They sell mainly high-order goods. They have large [blank_start]range[blank_end], [blank_start]threshold[blank_end] and sphere of [blank_start]influence[blank_end].

(Retail land use) At the [blank_start]bottom[blank_end] of the hierarchy are small, [blank_start]independent[blank_end] outlets, selling a variety of [blank_start]convenience[blank_end] goods ([blank_start]low-order[blank_end] goods) such as [blank_start]food[blank_end], [blank_start]newspapers[blank_end] and confectionery, in [blank_start]neighbourhood[blank_end] stores and [blank_start]shopping parades[blank_end]. Shopping parades are [blank_start]clusters[blank_end] of shops, including small [blank_start]supermarket[blank_end], an off-licence, a [blank_start]newsagent[blank_end] and other low-order [blank_start]outlets[blank_end] serving nearby [blank_start]residential[blank_end] areas. They are “convenient” on account of their [blank_start]long[blank_end] opening hours and the [blank_start]wide[blank_end] [blank_start]variety[blank_end] of products they carry.

This retailing revolution has focused on [blank_start]superstores[blank_end], hypermarkets and [blank_start]out-of-town[blank_end] shopping precincts, and people shopping [blank_start]less[blank_end] frequently. A number of factors explain this change in shopping habits: 1) [blank_start]demographic[blank_end] change e.g. falling population and more [blank_start]elderly[blank_end] people 2) [blank_start]suburbanisation[blank_end] and counter-[blank_start]urbanisation[blank_end] of more affluent households 3) [blank_start]technological[blank_end] change 4) [blank_start]economic[blank_end] change e.g. car ownership 5) congestion and [blank_start]inflated[blank_end] land prices 6) increased [blank_start]accessibility[blank_end] of [blank_start]suburban[blank_end] areas 7) [blank_start]social[blank_end] changes e.g. more women with paid work. As a result, there are [blank_start]less[blank_end] smaller high street shops and government policies are focusing on [blank_start]central[blank_end] shopping areas and [blank_start]neighbourhood[blank_end] schemes, which may lead to [blank_start]inner city[blank_end] redevelopment.

(Commercial land use) The [blank_start]central[blank_end] [blank_start]business[blank_end] [blank_start]district[blank_end] ([blank_start]CBD[blank_end]) is the [blank_start]commercial[blank_end] and [blank_start]economic[blank_end] core of a city. It is the area most [blank_start]accessible[blank_end] to public [blank_start]transport[blank_end], and the location with the [blank_start]highest[blank_end] land values. It has [blank_start]internal[blank_end] zoning (clustering of similar types of business).

Characteristics of CBD: [blank_start]multi[blank_end]-[blank_start]storey[blank_end] development, concentration of [blank_start]retailing[blank_end], [blank_start]public[blank_end] [blank_start]transport[blank_end], [blank_start]offices[blank_end], [blank_start]vertical[blank_end] zoning, [blank_start]functional[blank_end] [blank_start]segregation[blank_end], low [blank_start]residents[blank_end], high [blank_start]pedestrian[blank_end] flow, traffic [blank_start]restrictions[blank_end], CBD moving towards [blank_start]assimilation[blank_end] zone and leaving a [blank_start]discard[blank_end] zone.

Industrial activities are located in inner-city areas, close to [blank_start]railways[blank_end], [blank_start]canals[blank_end] for import/ export. Also in [blank_start]brownfield[blank_end] suburban areas close to [blank_start]airports[blank_end].

[blank_start]Physical[blank_end] factors, land [blank_start]values[blank_end], [blank_start]ethnicity[blank_end], urban residential [blank_start]planning[blank_end] are factors that affect the [blank_start]location[blank_end] of urban residential areas.

(Urban residential areas - physical factors) Wealthier people often live in residential areas [blank_start]safe[blank_end] from [blank_start]hazards[blank_end] and may have nice [blank_start]views[blank_end]. Meanwhile, [blank_start]poor[blank_end] people often live in residential areas with [blank_start]high[blank_end] risk of hazards. Similarly, HICs building [blank_start]standards[blank_end] generally take into account the [blank_start]risks[blank_end] associated with the site of housing, while in areas of [blank_start]rapid[blank_end] population growth and informal housing (mostly LICs), individuals may have to use any [blank_start]available[blank_end] site and may not be able to protect against the risk of hazards.

(urban residential areas - land values) In most HIC cities, residential [blank_start]density[blank_end] in the city centre is usually [blank_start]low[blank_end] because of [blank_start]high[blank_end] land values. However, with increasing [blank_start]distance[blank_end] from the city centre, residential density [blank_start]decreases[blank_end]. This reflects the greater availability of land in the [blank_start]suburbs[blank_end].

(Urban residential areas - ethnicity) Some [blank_start]ethnic[blank_end] groups may choose to live close [blank_start]together[blank_end], forming [blank_start]neighbourhoods[blank_end]. This is a form of positive [blank_start]segregation[blank_end], whereby ethnic groups gain [blank_start]advantages[blank_end] by being located in one place. On the other hand, [blank_start]negative[blank_end] segregation is where certain groups are [blank_start]excluded[blank_end] from particular areas.

Indicators of deprivation: Physical indicators: quality of [blank_start]housing[blank_end], levels of [blank_start]pollution[blank_end], incidence of [blank_start]crime[blank_end], [blank_start]vandalism[blank_end], graffiti. Social indicators: [blank_start]crime[blank_end] (reported and fear of); levels of [blank_start]health[blank_end] and access to [blank_start]health[blank_end] care; standards of [blank_start]education[blank_end]; proportion of population on [blank_start]benefits[blank_end] (unemployment, disability, free school meals); proportion of [blank_start]lone[blank_end]-parent families. Economic indices: access to [blank_start]employment[blank_end]; unemployment and underemployment; levels of [blank_start]income[blank_end] Political indices: opportunities to [blank_start]vote[blank_end] and take part in community organisation.

The total number of slum dwellers in the world stood at about ___ million people in 2015?

The UN defines a slum household as one or a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area, lacking one or more of the following five amenities: 1) [blank_start]durable[blank_end] housing 2) [blank_start]sufficient[blank_end] [blank_start]living[blank_end] space 3) access to [blank_start]improved[blank_end] water 4) access to improved [blank_start]sanitation[blank_end] [blank_start]facilities[blank_end] 5) [blank_start]secure[blank_end] [blank_start]tenure[blank_end]

The [blank_start]dual[blank_end] economy of the [blank_start]developing[blank_end] world city consists of a [blank_start]formal[blank_end] economy, complete with offices, factories and commercial buildings, and an [blank_start]informal[blank_end] economy, consisting of servants, gardeners, maids, cleaners, taxi drivers, prostitutes and a variety of other occupations. The informal economy is [blank_start]small[blank_end] scale, [blank_start]locally[blank_end] owned and [blank_start]labour[blank_end] intensive. It is often divided into two: a traditional [blank_start]bazaar[blank_end] economy and a [blank_start]street[blank_end] economy.

There is no difference between bazaar and street economy.

The difference between bazaar and street economy is that in a bazaar economy, people are selling legal products but the people might not be licensed. But in a street economy, people are selling illegal goods.

[blank_start]Informal[blank_end] sector can be a valuable way of relieving the economic problems of the poor by using their [blank_start]energy[blank_end], together with small-scale [blank_start]assistance[blank_end] or [blank_start]training[blank_end], to try to help them [blank_start]improve[blank_end] their circumstances. Informal economy can also allow even more [blank_start]exploitation[blank_end] of the poor by the rich. For example, the entrepreneurs who own the equipment or the capital necessary for the operation of a business are often quite wealthy people who work in the formal sector. In addition, the [blank_start]informal[blank_end] sector [blank_start]benefits[blank_end] those in the [blank_start]formal[blank_end] sector, since it keeps prices [blank_start]down[blank_end]. Hence it reduces the price that those in [blank_start]regular[blank_end] employment (the formal sector) have to [blank_start]pay[blank_end] for their [blank_start]goods[blank_end].

The rich need the poor just as the poor need the rich in order to earn a livelihood.

Why is it difficult for people to break out of urban poverty?

When the [blank_start]birth[blank_end] rate is higher than the [blank_start]death[blank_end] rate in a country or place, it is called the natural [blank_start]increase[blank_end]. This often occurs in cities because of its [blank_start]youthful[blank_end] age structure. In contrast, the [blank_start]rural[blank_end] areas that they leave behind develop more of an [blank_start]ageing[blank_end] population, which means that rural birth rates are likely to [blank_start]decrease[blank_end]. On the other hand, the social and cultural pressures on women to have children are less in urban areas than in more traditional rural areas, thus birth rates and fertility rates are low in some urban areas.

[blank_start]Rural[blank_end]–[blank_start]urban[blank_end] migration refers to the movement of people [blank_start]away[blank_end] from the countryside to towns and cities. The reasons for this movement can be explained with [blank_start]push[blank_end] and pull factors.

Rural [blank_start]push[blank_end] factors are the [blank_start]negative[blank_end] features that cause a person to move away from rural area, e.g. un[blank_start]employment[blank_end], lower [blank_start]quality[blank_end] housing, can't pursue [blank_start]dreams[blank_end], lack of [blank_start]educational[blank_end] institutes, lack of [blank_start]public[blank_end] services and facilities, [blank_start]insufficient[blank_end] supply of resources, natural disasters, not convenient to travel to other places.

Urban [blank_start]pull[blank_end] factors are the attractions (whether real or imagined) that exist at an urban place, e.g. lots of job [blank_start]opportunities[blank_end], many [blank_start]educational[blank_end] institutions, better [blank_start]housing[blank_end], advanced [blank_start]technology[blank_end], [blank_start]better[blank_end] sanitation, better [blank_start]infrastructure[blank_end].

[blank_start]Gentrification[blank_end] is the reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas, increasing the [blank_start]land[blank_end] [blank_start]values[blank_end] and improve [blank_start]residential[blank_end] areas. However, it may [blank_start]negatively[blank_end] affect residents, such as social [blank_start]displacement[blank_end] of poor people.

Re-[blank_start]urbanisation[blank_end]/ urban [blank_start]renewal[blank_end] is a [blank_start]revitalisation[blank_end] (give new life) of [blank_start]urban[blank_end] areas and a movement of people back into these areas.

[blank_start]Suburban[blank_end]isation is the outward expansion of towns and cities, mainly in Europe, North America and Australia, largely thanks to improvements in [blank_start]transport[blank_end] systems. Reasons for this boom in private housebuilding includes very low [blank_start]interest[blank_end] rates, willingness of local authorities to provide [blank_start]utilities[blank_end], such as sewers, [blank_start]electricity[blank_end], gas and water, improved [blank_start]public[blank_end] [blank_start]transport[blank_end].

[blank_start]Counter[blank_end]-[blank_start]urban[blank_end]isation is a process involving the movement of population away from [blank_start]larger[blank_end] urban areas to [blank_start]smaller[blank_end] urban areas, new towns, new estates, commuter towns or villages on the [blank_start]edge[blank_end] or just beyond the city [blank_start]limits[blank_end]/ the [blank_start]rural[blank_end]–[blank_start]urban[blank_end] fringe. Reasons include: high [blank_start]land[blank_end] prices, congestion, pollution, high [blank_start]crime[blank_end] rates, lack of [blank_start]community[blank_end], declining services.

[blank_start]Urban[blank_end] [blank_start]sprawl[blank_end] is the [blank_start]uncontrolled[blank_end] growth of urban areas at their edges.

The ability of an urban area to attract new economic activity is limited if they fail to match population growth with infrastructure growth. Infrastructure includes transport facilities and telecommunications networks.

[blank_start]Deindustrialisation[blank_end] is the long-term, absolute [blank_start]decline[blank_end] in [blank_start]employment[blank_end] in the [blank_start]manufacturing[blank_end] sectors of an economy. It refers to a loss of [blank_start]jobs[blank_end] rather than a decline in productivity. The decline of certain industries or areas is due to a number of factors, including: the exhaustion of [blank_start]resources[blank_end], the increasing [blank_start]costs[blank_end] of raw materials, automation and new technology, the introduction of a rival product, fall in demand, overseas competition from NICs, rationalization, a rise in costs, the removal of a subsidy, lack of capital.