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Creado por Em Maskrey
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| Pregunta | Respuesta |
| Although there have been vast improvements in the educational level of the nation as a whole since state education began in 1870, which characteristic continues to produce different results? | Social class. |
| When examining social class differences in achievement, what are the two groups that sociologists use to compare? | The working- and middle-class. |
| How do sociologists determine a pupil's social class? | They use parental occupation. |
| Give examples of middle-class occupations: | Doctors, teachers, managers and other 'white collar' workers. |
| Give examples of working-class occupations: | Skilled workers such as plumbers, semi-skilled workers such as lorry drivers, and unskilled workers such as cleaners. |
| How does social class seriously impact a child’s chances of educational success? | Children from middle-class families on average perform better than children from working-class families. |
| Furthermore, the class gap in achievement grows wider as children get older. How? | Children from middle-class families gain better GCSE results, stay in full-time education for longer, and make up the majority of university intake. |
| What is the most obvious explanation for the class differences in educational achievement: | Better-off parents can afford to send their children to private schools, which many believe provide a higher standard of education. |
| In private schools, average class sizes are _________ of those in state schools. Although private schools educate only __% of Britain’s children, they account for nearly __% all students entering the elite universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Fill in the blanks: | Less than half; 7; 50. |
| Sociologists are interested in why class differences in educational achievement exist. They put forward a number of explanations, which can be grouped into ‘internal’ and ‘external’ factors. Define these terms: | Internal factors are factors within the education system, such as interactions between pupils and teachers, and inequalities between schools. External factors are factors outside the education system, such as the influence of home and family background. |
| Class differences in children’s development and achievement appear very early in life. In a 2007 nationwide study, what did the Center for Longitudinal Studies find? | By the age of three, children from disadvantaged backgrounds are already up to a year behind those from more privileged homes, and the gap only widens with age. |
| Some sociologist claim that class differences in children's development and achievement is the result of cultural deprivation. What is meant by this? | Cultural deprivation theorists argue that many working-class families fail to socialise their children adequately. These children grow up ‘culturally deprived’, lacking the 'cultural equipment' needed to do well at school, and subsequently underachieve. |
| What are the three main aspects of cultural deprivation? | 1. Language. 2. Parents’ education. 3. Working-class subculture. |
| Language is an extremely important aspect of education. How does the way in which parents communicate with their children impact the child? | Parents' communication affects the child's cognitive development and their ability to benefit from the schooling process. |
| What did Laura Hubbs-Tait et al find with regards to challenging language? | Where parents use language that challenges their children to evaluate their own understanding and abilities, cognitive performance improves. |
| Who found that educated parents are more likely to use challenging language? | Leon Feinstein. |
| Feinstein also found that educated parents are more likely to praise their children. How does the assist the child? | It encourages the child to develop a sense of their own competence. |
| Carl Bereiter and Siegfried Engelmann claim that the language used in lower-class homes is deficient. What impact does this have on lower-class children? | They fail to develop the necessary language skills and grow up incapable of abstract thinking and unable to use language to explain, describe, inquire and compare. |
| Basil Bernstein also identifies differences between working- and middle-class language. He identifies two types of speech ‘code’. What are they? | The restricted speech code and the elaborated speech code. |
| What does Bernstein mean by the 'restricted code'? | Typically used by the working-class, the code has a limited vocabulary. Speech may involve only a single word, or even just a gesture. The code is descriptive, rather than analytic, and is context-bound. |
| What does Bernstein mean by the 'elaborated code'? | Typically used by the middle-class, the code has a wider vocabulary and is based on longer, grammatically complex sentences. The elaborated code is context-free. |
| The differences in these speech codes give middle-class children an advantage at school. Why? | The elaborated code is the language used by teachers, textbooks and exams. Not only is it considered the ‘correct’ way to speak and write, but in Bernstein’s view, it is also a more effective tool for analysing, reasoning and expressing thoughts clearly and effectively. |
| Why do critics argue that Bernstein is a cultural deprivation theorist? | Because he describes working-class speech as inadequate. |
| However, how does Bernstein differ from the typical cultural deprivation theorist? | Unlike most cultural deprivation theorists, Bernstein recognises that the home isn’t the only thing that influences children’s achievement. He argues that working-class pupils fail not because they are culturally deprived, but because schools fail to teach them how to use the elaborated code. |
| Cultural deprivation theorists argue that parents’ attitudes to education are a key factor affecting children’s achievement. J.W.B Douglas conducted a major study on this matter. What did he find? | WC parents put less value on education, were less ambitious for their children, gave them less encouragement and took less interest in their education. As a result, their children had lower levels of motivation and achievement. |
| Which sociologists agrees with Douglas' findings, arguing that parents’ own education is the most important factor affecting children’s achievement? | Leon Feinstein. |
| The way in which working-class and middle-class parents socialise their children differs in a number of ways. List them: | 1.Parenting style 2. Parents' educational behaviour 3. Use of income |
| What is meant by 'parenting style', and why does the middle-class parenting style put middle-class children at an advantage? | Middle-class parenting style emphasises consistent discipline and high expectations, which supports achievement. In contrast, working-class parenting style is marked by harsh and inconsistent discipline that emphasises behaving. This prevents the child from learning independence and self-control, leading to poorer motivation at school and problems interacting with teachers. |
| What is meant by 'parents educational behaviour', and why do middle-class parents' educational behaviour put their children at an advantage? | Middle-class parents are more aware of what’s needed to assist their children’s educational progress. They are more likely to read, teach, encourage and help their children. They are also better able to get expert advice on childrearing and more successful in establishing good relationships with teachers. |
| What is meant by 'use of income', and why does the middleclass use of income put children at an advantage? | Better educated parents not only tend to have higher incomes, but use their incomes in ways that promote their children’s educational success. Educated parents also have a better understanding of nutrition and its importance in child development, and a higher income with which to buy more nutritious food. |
| According to cultural deprivation theorists, lack of parental interest in their children's education reflects what? | The subcultural values of the working class. |
| According to cultural deprivation theorists, large sections of the working class have different values from the rest of society and this is why they fail academically. Barry Sugarman takes this view. What four key elements of working-class subcultural does he argue act as a barrier to educational success? | 1. Fatalism. 2. Collectivism. 3. Immediate gratification. 4. Present-time orientation. |
| What is meant by fatalism? | Fatalism refers to a belief in fate. This is common in the working-class subculture, but not in the middle-class subculture, which emphasises the idea of meritocracy and hard work. |
| What is meant by collectivism? | This refers to the act of valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual. This contrasts with the middle-class view that an individual shouldn't be held back by group loyalties. |
| What is meant by immediate gratification? | The act of seeking pleasure instantly, rather than making sacrifices in order to gain rewards in the future. Middle-class values emphasise the opposite (deferred gratification). |
| What is meant by present-time orientation? | The notion that the present is more important than the future, resulting in a lack of future goals. The middle-class culture has a future-time orientation that sees planning for the future as important. |
| Working-class children internalise the values of their subculture through which process? | The socialisation process. |
| Working-class values and middle-class values are different. Why is this, according to Sugarman? | Middle-class jobs offer long-term prospects, which encourages ambition and planning for the future. By contrast, working-class jobs are less secure and do not allow individuals to advance. As such, they have no reason to think about the future. |
| Compensatory education programmes aim to tackle what? How do they attempt to do so? | The problem of cultural deprivation. They do this by providing extra resources to schools and communities in deprived areas. They intervene early in the socialisation process to compensate children for the deprivation they experience at home. |
| Give examples of compensatory education programmes: | Operation Head Start; Sure Start. |
| Which sociologist dismisses cultural deprivation theory as a 'myth' and a victim-blaming explanation? | Nell Keddie. |
| Keddie dismisses the idea that failure at school can be blamed on a culturally deprived home environment. What does she point out about the idea of being deprived of culture? | She notes that a child cannot be deprived of its own culture. She argues that working-class children are simply culturally different, not culturally deprived. |
| According to Keddie, why do working-class children often fail academically? | Because they are at a disadvantage in an education system that is dominated by middle-class values. |
| What should schools do to help working-class students? | They shouldn't see working-class culture as deficient , and instead should recognise and build upon its strengths. Teachers' anti-working-class prejudices should be challenged. |
| Which sociologists argue that a 'speech hierarchy' exists in schools? | Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams |
| Tessa Blackstone and Jo Mortimore dismiss the view that working-class parents are uninterested in their children's education. They claim that such parents are interested, but are limited. Why? | Because they often work longer/more irregular hours, preventing them from being able to attend parents' evenings, etc. They may be unsure as to how to best help their children, and maybe even feel alienated by the school's middle-class atmosphere. |
| What does the term 'material deprivation' refer to? | Poverty and a lack of material necessities such as adequate housing and income. |
| Poverty is closely linked to educational underachievement. What did the Department for Education find? | Barely a third of pupils eligible for free school meals achieve 5+ A*-C GCSEs including English and maths, as against to nearly two thirds of other pupils. |
| According to official statistics, what percentage of 'failing' schools are located in deprived areas? | Nearly 90% |
| There's a close link between poverty and social class. Working-class families are much more likely to live with factors that negatively affect their children's education. Which factors are these? | Housing, diet and health, financial pressure and fear of debt. |
| Poor housing can affect pupils' achievement both directly and indirectly. Give examples: | Directly, overcrowding can make it harder for a child to study, sleep, and rest. Indirectly, children in poor housing can suffer from more colds and accidents. They may also suffer from poor mental health. |
| Children from poorer homes are more likely to have emotional or behavioural problems. What did Richard Wilkinson find? | Among ten-year-olds, the lower the social class, the higher the rate of hyperactivity, anxiety and conduct disorders, all of which negatively effect education. |
| Children from poor families often have to do without equipment and activities that could enhance their educational achievement. Which sociologist describes this as 'the cost of free schooling'? | David Bull. |
| Which sociologist found that the cost of items such as books, uniforms, computers, calculators and extracurricular equipment can be a heavy burden on poor families? | Emily Tanner et al. |
| For many children, 'fashionable' clothing are essential for self-esteem and failing to have such items can result in stigmatisation. According to Jan Flaherty, what may the fear of stigmatisation explain? | Why 20% of those entitled to free school meals do not take up their entitlement. |
| Lack of funds can often mean that children from low-income families are required to work part-time around their studies. However, what can this result in? | Working alongside schooling can negatively impact a student's educational performance. They may not have enough time to complete homework satisfactorily or may be too tired to concentrate in class due to their busy schedules. |
| Financial support for poor students remaining in education beyond the age of 16 used to exist. What was it called and when did it end? | Education Maintenance Allowances (EMAs). However, these were abolished in 2011. |
| The abolition of EMAs may explain why, according to UCAS, the number of UK applicants fell in 2012. How much did the application rate fall by? | 8.6% |
| Working-class students who do continue into higher education are less likely to receive financial support from their families. According to the NUS, what percentage of students from the highest social class received financial support from home, and how does this compare to the lowest social class? | 81% versus 43%. |
| The working class make up about 50% of the general population. What percentage of the higher education population do they make up? | Just 30%. |
| Financial factors also restrict working-class students' choice of university. Which sociologist found that working-class students were more likely to apply to local universities to cut on costs, but this limited their opportunities to go to the top universities? | Diane Reay. |
| Pierre Bourdieu argues that both cultural and material factors contribute to educational success or failure. He states that the two are not separated but are interrelated. What concept does he use to explain why the middle class are more successful than the working class? | The concept of 'capital'. |
| What are the three capitals Bourdieu refers to? | Cultural, economic and educational. |
| What does Bourdieu mean by 'cultural capital'? | This refers to the knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities possessed by a person. |
| Why does Bourdieu believe that culture provides a type of capital? | Because, like wealth, culture gives an advantage to those who possess it. |
| What does Bourdieu mean by 'economic capital'? | This refers to a person's net worth. |
| What does Bourdieu mean by 'educational capital'? | This refers to a person's level of education, the qualifications they hold, etc. |
| Dennis Leech and Erik Campos found that middle-class parents are more likely to be able to afford a house in the catchment area of a successful school, thus having a better chance of having their child enrolled in the school. What is this known as? | This is known as 'selection by mortgage'. |
| However, where students of different classes had the same level of cultural capital, the middle-class pupils were still more successful at school. This indicates that the greater resources and aspirations of middle-class families explain the remainder of the class gap in achievement. Which sociologist found this? | Alice Sullivan. |
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