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| Pregunta | Respuesta |
| Parenchyma: | Can produce daughter cells Thin Walled Cells |
| Collenchyma: | Corner Cells Thicker Cell Walls: Grow Slower |
| Sclerenchyma: | Stone Like Cells - dead when functioning. Very Thick Cell Walls |
| Dermal Tissue | Thick, Outside Skin |
| Ground Tissue | Fundamental Tissue System |
| Vascular Tissue | Transport of Water and Nutrients |
| Annuals | describes a plant or other organism that completes its whole life cycle in one year |
| Biennuals | a plant whose life cycle extends for more than one but less than two years after germination. Having a life cycle lasting two seasons |
| Perennial | A plant lasting for three seasons or more. |
| Roots | provide anchorage in the soil and foster efficient uptake of water and minerals |
| Stem | produce leaves and branches and bear the reproductive structures |
| Leaves | foliage leaves specialized for photosynthesis |
| Eudicots | 1 Cotyledon Parallel Veins Tap Root Flower Parts in Multiple of 3 |
| Monocots | 2 Cotyledons Net Like Veinations Flower Parts in Multiple of 4-5 Fiberous Root |
| Zone of Elongation | Cells extend by water uptake |
| Zone of Maturation | Root cell differentiation and tissue specialization Identified by presence of root hairs (water and mineral uptake) absent from older regions |
| Xylem | transport water and mineral ions from root to the rest |
| Phloem | distributes products of photosynthesis and other nutrients: Carbohydrates |
| Phytomere | shoot module |
| Stem node | leaves emerge |
| Internode | between adjacent nodes |
| Axillary meristem | generate axillary buds for lateral shoots |
| Herbaceous plants | produce mostly primary vascular tissues |
| Woody plants | produce primary and secondary vascular tissue |
| Tracheids and vessel elements | conduct water and dissolved minerals (not living cells) |
| Primary phloem | Transports organic compounds and certain minerals |
| Sieve elements | living cells |
| Companion cells | aid sieve element metabolism |
| Secondary xylem | wood |
| Secondary phloem | inner bark |
| Cork cambium: | Produces Cork |
| lignin and suberin | Layers dead cork cells |
| Vascular cambium | Produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem |
| Auxin | controls production of leaf primordia |
| Gibberellic acid | produced by leaf primordia when KNOX gene is absent. Stimulates cell division and cell enlargement so young leaves grow larger |
| stoma | an open aperture (the stomatal pore) in the epidermis surrounded by two guard cells. stomata - plural |
| Simple leaves | only one blade, advantageous in shade by providing maximal light absorption |
| Complex or compound leaves | dissected into leaflets, common in hot environments for heat dissipation |
| Vegetative growth | indeterminate growth |
| Reproductive growth | determinate growth |
| Diploid | spore-producing sporophyte: Produces spores by meiosis |
| Haploid | gamete-producing gametophyte: Produces gametes by mitosis |
| phytochrome | Light Sensing Pigment |
| Sepal | Calyx |
| Petals | Corolla |
| Stamens | androecium |
| Carpels | gynoecium |
| Perianth | calyx and corolla |
| Complete flowers | all 4 whorls |
| Incomplete flowers | lack 1 or more whorls |
| Perfect flowers | have stamens and carpels |
| Imperfect flowers | Producing carpels – carpellate or pistillate Producing stamens – staminate |
| Dioecious | staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants |
| Monoecious | staminate and pistillate flowers on same plant |
| Sepals | Tend to be green |
| Petals | Colorful part of the Flower |
| regular or actinomorphic | Radially symmetrical flowers |
| irregular or zygomorphic | Bilaterally symmetrical flowers |
| Stamens | Produce male gametophyte and foster their early development Filament topped by anther Anther is a group of 4 sporangia producing spores |
| Pollen grains | Immature male gametophyte |
| haploid sperm | mature male gametophyte |
| Pollen tube growth | Pollen grain germinates by taking up water and producing a pollen tube Pollen generative nucleus usually divides by mitosis to produce two sperm cells Upon rehydration a pollen tube extends into the spaces between cells of the style To deliver sperm to egg cells, the tube must grow from the stigma, through the style, to the ovule |
| Carpels | Vase-shaped structures that produce, enclose, and nurture female gametophytes and mature male gametophytes Contain veins of vascular tissue that deliver nutrients from the parent sporophyte to the developing gametophytes Flower contains one or more carpels that form a pistil |
| Female gametophyte | Many possess 7 cells and 8 nuclei Egg cell lies between 2 synergids Synergids help move nutrients to female gametophyte 3 antipodal cells Central cell has 2 nuclei |
| Fertilization | Fertilization leads to the production of a young sporophyte that lies within a seed Pollination – pollen grains must find their way to stigma Some self-pollinate while others cross-pollinate |
| Embryogenesis | development from single celled zygotes by mitosis |
| Endosperm | Supplies nutritional needs for developing embryo and often seedling |
| Simple fruits | from single ovary |
| Fleshy fruits | berry, hesperidium, pome, drupe, pepo |
| Dry fruits | Indehiscent- achene, acorn, caryopsis (grain), nut, samara, schizocarp Dehiscent: capsule, follicle, legume, silicle, silique |
| Aggregate fruits | from multiple simple ovaries of a single flower gynoecium |
| Multiple fruits | from multiple ovaries of an inflorescence. (compound fruits) |
| Hesperidium | Berries with leathery rind |
| Pome | from an inferior compound ovary Ex. Apples |
| Pepo | from a compound inferior ovary, w/ a hard and tough exocarp ex. Watermelon and Pumpkin |
| Drupe | from an unicarpellate (i.e., simple) ovary, w/ one seed and a stony endocarp ex. Coconut |
| Asexual reproduction | maintain favorable gene combinations, advantageous when mates or pollinators rare, allows some plants to live a very long time |
| Apomixis | fruits and seeds are produced in the absence of fertilization |
| Meiosis | produces diploid megaspores (no meiosis II) |
| Essential nutrients | substances needed by plants in order to complete their reproductive cycle |
| Macronutrients | required in amounts of at least 0.1% of plant dry matter |
| Micronutrients or trace elements | required in amounts at or less than 0.01% of plant dry matter |
| Limiting factors | light, carbon dioxide, water and other mineral nutrients can limit growth |
| Light | All photosynthetic plants require light Can be regarded as a plant nutrient |
| Adaptations to shade | Produce thin, translucent leaves that allow some light to pass through to other leaves Produce more total chlorophyll |
| Adaptations to excessive light | Too much light can destroy an essential photosynthetic protein |
| Xanthophyll | can absorb light energy and dissipate it as harmless heat |
| Leaf mesophyll | cells absorb carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions |
| Organic fertilizer | most minerals bound to organic molecules and released slowly |
| Organic farming | production of crops without using inorganic fertilizers, growth substances, and pesticides |
| Inorganic fertilizer | inorganic minerals which are immediately useful but can be leached away – commercially produced |
| Nitrogen fixation | atmospheric N2 combined with H to give NH3 |
| Cyanobacterial-plant symbioses | Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic Plant partner can subsidize high cost of nitrogen fixation Allows cyanobacteria to fix more nitrogen than they need and excess goes to plant partner |
| Actinobacteria | Heterotrophic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria |
| Frankia | in nodules formed on roots of some shrubs or trees such as Alder and myrtle |
| Phosphate | Often limits plant growth Occurs in soil in 3 dissolved forms H3PO4, H2PO4-, HPO42- |
| Mycorrhizal associations | fungi and plant About 90% of seed plants have fungal symbiotic associations – forming mycorrhizae (fungus root) |
| Monotropa | gets energy from fungi, which form mycorrhizal association with photosynthetic trees. |
| mycoheterotrophy | Plants us it to survive until they can get proper light for photosynthesis |
| Aluminum (Al3+) | Most common soil mineral and toxic at micromolar amounts (inhibits root elongation and uptake of minerals and water) |
| Hyperaccumulators | About 400 plant species are hyperaccumulators Accumulate and bind toxic metals safely within tissue |
| phytoremediation | process used to remove toxic heavy metals from soils |
| Passive mechanism | depend on prey to fall or wander into trap, slippery wall, water to drown small animals e.g. lizards and frogs. Their bodies are digested by microbes living in the pitchers |
| Active mechanism | traps stimulated by touch |
| Holoparasitic | a plant that is completely parasitic on other plants and has virtually no chlorophyll |
| • Hemiparasitic: | a plant that is parasitic under natural conditions and is also photosynthetic. obtain water and mineral nutrients from the host plant. obtain part of their organic nutrients from host |
| Transpiration | Powers the move of water from soil, via roots and stems, to leaves Cools leaf surfaces Essential for moving dissolved minerals and organic compounds such as sugars and hormones |
| Xylem | transports water and dissolved minerals |
| Phloem | transports organic substances |
| Passive transport – | doesn't require energy input: Movement of materials into or out of cells down a concentration gradient without ATP |
| Passive diffusion | movement of a solute through a phospholipid bilayer down a gradient |
| Facilitated diffusion | transport of molecules across plasma membranes down a concentration gradient with the aid of membrane transport proteins |
| Transporters | bind and change conformation to release molecule on opposite side. Increases the rate at which specific ions and organic molecules are able to enter plants cells and vacuoles. |
| Channels | membrane pores formed by proteins that allow movement of ions and molecules across membrane |
| Active transport | energy spent |
| Membrane transporter proteins | use energy to move substances against their concentration gradients |
| H+-ATPase proton pump | uses ATP to pump protons against a gradient |
| Proton gradient | generates an electrical difference (membrane potential) Energy released when protons pass down their gradient is used to power active transport |
| Cotransport | transport 2 substances in the same direction across a membrane |
| Turgor (swelling) pressure | hydrostatic pressure that increases as water enters plant cells Cell walls restrict the extent to which the cells can swell |
| Osmosis | diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane in response to differences in solute concentrations |
| Aquaporins | allow facilitated diffusion of water |
| Turgid plant | has a cytosol full of water and plasma membrane pushes up against cell wall – cells are firm or swollen. |
| Plasmolyzed cell | has lost so much water that turgor pressure lost |
| Flaccid cell | is between the 2 extremes |
| Water potential | Potential energy of water: Measured in megapascals |
| Cellular Water Potential | Ψw = Ψs + Ψp Ψs = solute or osmotic potential Ψp = pressure or wall potential |
| Halophytes | grow in salty habitats Cannot readily absorb salty water due to highly negative water potential |
| Tissue-level transport | short-distance transport within and among nearby tissues |
| Three Kinds of Tissue Transport | Transmembrane – e.g., auxin moving from shoot to roots. Symplastic – (plasmodesmata + protoplast, symplast) Apoplastic – (water-soaked cell walls and intercellular spaces, apoplast) |
| Transmembrane Transport | Export of a material from one cell into the intercellular space, followed by import of the same substance by an adjacent cell Movement of auxin |
| Symplastic transport | Movement of a substance from the cytosol of one cell to the cytosol of an adjacent cell via plasmodesmata |
| Apoplastic transport | Movement of solutes through cell walls and spaces between cells |
| Apoplast | continuum of water-soaked cell walls and intercellular spaces |
| root endodermis | barrier between root cortex and central core |
| Casparian strips | water-proof suberin (wax and phenolic polymers) prevent apoplastic transport into root vascular tissues |
| Xylem loading | large amounts of water enter the long-distance conducting cells of the xylem, carrying solutes along |
| Bulk or mass flow | molecules of liquid all move together from one place to another. |
| Embolism | Blockage by air bubbles |
| Root pressure | at night root xylem accumulates ions |
| guttation | Water pushes upward to leaves and out as droplets on leaves |
| Ethylene | stimulates formation of abscission zone with separation layer and underlying protective area |
| Sieve plates | perforated end walls of mature sieve tube elements |
| Sucrose (disaccharides) | used for most long distance transport |
| Hormones | receptors + hormone >> gene expression |
| miRNAs | destruction of mRNA that would otherwise be translated into translation factors or other proteins >> gene expression. |
| Receptor molecules | located in plant cells sense stimuli and cause responses |
| Phototropism | plant senses direction of light and responds by changing the location of auxin, a plant hormone. |
| • Proteins that become activated when they receive a specific type of signal: | membrane (defensive hormones) cytosol (light receptors) nucleus (auxin receptors) |
| Phenotypic plasticity | the same specie with various structure or behavior. |
| Plant Hormones | Auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene, abscisic acid and brassinosteroids |
| Stress hormones | Function: Help plants respond to environmental stresses hormones: Abscisic acid Brassinosteroids Salicylic acid (SA) Systemin (a peptide) Jasmonic acid Nitric oxide (NO) |
| Photoperiodism | influences the timing of dormancy and flowering |
| Gravitropism | Growth in response to the force of gravity |
| Drought | regulate aquaporin opening and closing using protein loop stopper and close stomata |
| Salinity | miRNA induces enzyme destruction leading to buildup of proline, an amino acid, that stabilizes plasma membranes against damage. Lower water potential. |
| Heat | produce heat shock proteins to protect proteins from heat damage. |
| Cold | vernalization – plants measure length of winter, and flower only in warm season |
| • Vernalization genes (VRN1 and VRN2). | VRN1 in spring and winter wheat. VRN2 only in winter wheat, repressing flowering. A long winter will destroy VRN2 protein allowing flowering. |
| Elicitors | compounds produced by bacterial and fungal pathogens (e.g., chitin) |
| Avr (avirulence) genes | encode virulence-enhancing elicitors |
| Hypersensitive response (HR) | A plant recognizes a pathogen by chemical means and responds in such a way that the disease symptoms are limited |
| Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) | plant immune system Localized hypersensitive response can result in the production of alarm signals that travel to noninfected regions of a plant and induce widespread resistance to diverse pathogens |
| 10 plant phyla | Hepatophyta (Liverworts) Bryophyta (Mosses) Anthocerophyta (Hornworts) Lycopodiophyta (Lycophytes) Pteridophyta (Pteridophytes) Cycadophyta (Cycads) Ginkgophyta (Ginkgos) Coniferophyta (Conifers) Gnetophyta (Gnetophytes) Anthophyta (Angiosperms, flowering) |
| Charophycean | display a zygotic life cycle with a one cell diploid zygote |
| Bryophytes | exhibit a sporic life cycle with alternation of generations |
| Diploid sporophyte | produces haploid spores by meiosis Spores grow into gametophytes |
| Haploid gametophyte | produces gametes by mitosis Gametes are nonflagellate eggs and smaller flagellate sperm fuse into single-celled diploid zygotes |
| AngioSperms | Flowers specialized to enhance seed production Endosperm nutritive seed tissue with increased storage efficiency Fruits develop from flowers enclose seed and foster seed dispersal |
| Bryophytes | Mobile Sperm Yes Vascular Tissue NO Euphyll NO Embryo Yes Endosperm NO Wood NO Seed NO Fruit NO |
| Lycophytes & Pteridophytes | Mobile Sperm Yes Vascular Tissue Yes Euphyll: No(Lyco) Yes (Pterido) Embryo Yes Endosperm No Wood NO Seed NO Fruit NO |
| Gymnosperms | Mobile Sperm Yes Vascular Tissue Yes Euphyll Yes Embryo Yes Endosperm NO Wood Yes Seed Yes Fruit NO |
| Angiosperms | Mobile Sperm NO Vascular Tissue YES Euphyll YES Embryo YES Endosperm YES Wood YES Seed YES Fruit YES |
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