AP Psychology Vocabulary Flashcards P.1

Pregunta	Respuesta
Alfred Alder	Neo Freudian Birth Order, Inferiority & Superiority Compllex, Compensation
Mary Ainsworth	Attachment Theory
Albert Bandura	Behaviorist/Cognitive Theorist Social Learning, Bobo Doll...
Alfred Binet	Intelligence Testing Standford-Binet Intelligence Test
Mary Cover-Jones	Counter Conditioning "mother" of behavior therapy
Erik Erikson	Psychosocial Development-8 Stages
Gustav Fechner	Sensation and Perception Color Perception
Anna Freud	Psychoanalytic Child Psychoanalysis, Ego Psychology
Sigmund Freud	Father of Psychoanalysis
Harry Harlow	Attachment Cloth/wire monkey experiment
Wolfgang Kohler	Gestalt Theorist
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross	Stages of Dying
John Locke	Tabula Rasa
Abraham Maslow	Humanism Hierarchy of Needs, Self Actualization, Self Esteem
Ivan Pavlov	Behaviorist Classical Conditioning, Dogs,..
Jean Piaget	Cognitive Development Sensimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal operations
Carl Rogers	Humanism Real vs Ideal Self, Client-Centered Therapy, Unconditional Positive Regard
Herman Rorschach	Inkblot Projective Test
Julian Rotter	Locus of Control
Stanley Schachter	Schacter-Singer Theory of Emotion, two-factor theory of emotion: generalized arousal & appraisal
Martin Seligman	Social Cognitive Learned helplessness
B.F. Skinner	Behaviorist Operant conditioning, Schedules of reinforcement
Charles Spearman	G-Factor Intelligence, S factors, Factor Analysis
Edward Thorndike	Law of Effect, Cats, Puzzle Boxes
Edward Tolman	Latent Learning & Cognitive Maps
Herman Von Helmholz	Young-Helmholz- Trichromatic Theory of Color
John Watson	Classic Conditioning, Little Albert
Max Wertheimer	Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization (closure, proximity, similarity, continuity, figure ground, connectedness)
Philip Zimabardo	Stanford Prison Experiment
Stress	Process by which we perceive & respond to certain events that we appraise as threatening or challenging
T Lymphocytes	White blood cells that form in the thymus & attack cancer cells, viruses, & foreign substances
Distress	Extreme anxiety, sorrow, or pain
Ader & Cohen Experiment	Discovered that the immune system could be conditioned just like Pavlov's dogs...mice prone to lupus were injected with a drug to help lupus while drinking a flavored drink...eventually the taste alone reduced lupus symptoms almost as much as the drug
Eustress	Positive & healthy form of stress
Epinephrine	Hormone secreted by the adrenal glands esp. in times of stress (a.k.a Adrenaline)
Biofeedback	system for electronically recording, amplifying, & feeding back info regarding psychological state (ex. blood pressure, muscle tension)
Norepinphrine	hormone that is released by the adrenal medulla & by the sympathetic nerves & functions as a neurotransmitter...used as a drug to raise blood pressure...(a.k.a Noradrenaline) also released in times of stress
Set Point	genetically determined range of weight & temperature a body will try to maintain to stay at optimal health
Leptin	protein produced by fatty body tissue that regulates fat storage
Memory	persistence of learning over time through storage & retrieval of info
Flashbulb Memory	Clear memory of an emotionally significant moment/event
General Adaptation Syndrome	Seyle's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in 3 stages (Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion)
Encoding	processing of info into the memory system
Storage	retention of encoded info over time
Retrieval	process of getting info out of memory storage
Burnout	physical, emotional, & mental exhaustion brought on by persistent job-related stress
Type A	in a chronic state of stress, almost always has adrenaline flowing in the blood (more prone to heart disease)
Type B	generally relaxed & patient
Sensory Memory	immediate, initial recording of sensory info in memory system. Capacity: 12 items; Length: 200-500 milliseconds
Short term memory	activate memory that holds a few items briefly before the info that is stored or forgotten. Capacity: 7 items; Length: several seconds to a minute
B Lymphocytes	white blood cells that form in the bone marrow & release antibodies to fight bacterial infections
Long Term Memory	relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system
Chunking	Organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically..increases capacity of short term memory
Iconic Memory	momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic memory...lasts no longer than a few tenths of a second
Automatic Processing	unconscious encoding of incidental info such as space, time, & frequency, & well learned info like word meanings
Echoic Memory	momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli...if attention is elsewhere, sounds & words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Long Term Potentiation	Increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation...believed to be neural basis for learning & memory
Effortful Processing	encoding that requires attention & conscious effort
Amnesia	loss of memory
Rehearsal	conscious repetition of info either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
Implicit Memories	retention without conscious recollection of skills & disposition (a.k.a procedural memory)
Spacing Effect	tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Serial Position Effect	Our tendency to recall best the last & first items in a list
Explicit Memories	Memory of facts & experiences that one can consciously know & "declare"...processed by hippocampus
Semantic Encoding	encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
Hippocampus	neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Acoustic Encoding	Encoding of sound, esp sound of words
Recall	measure of memory in which the person must retrieve info learned earlier
Recognition	measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned
Relearning	memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Visual Encoding	encoding of pictures
Mnemonic Devices	Memory aids, esp those techniques that use vivid imagery & organizational devices
State Dependent Memory	person remember things when they find themselves in the same state that they were in when they encoded the info
Repression	Self censors painful info such as memories received to decrease anxiety: defense mechanism in psychoanalysis
Mood Congruent Memory	depending on what mood, you will remember a more specific state dependent memory
Misinformation Effect	incorporating misleading info into one's memory (Elizabeth Loftus)
Source Amnesia	attributed memory to the wrong source, may be heart of false memories
encoding failure	an event that didn't make it into long term memory (not interesting or important enough to remember)
Wilhem Wundt	known for STRUCTURALISM perspective; 1st psychology lab; key idea is introspection
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve	we lose most info we learn from the time we learn it, until a year later
William James	known for FUNCTIONALISM perspective; 1st psychology textbook; key idea is adaptation & environment; we do thinks that were advantageous for our ancestors
Introspection	examination/observation of one's own mental & emotional processes (Wundt)
Structuralism	A method of interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience that focuses on relationships; structure is more important then function. What is making up the experience I am having right now?
Functionalism	what is the function of a behavior? Why does an organism respond this way?
Proactive Interference	old info in way of learning new info
Francis Galton	known for his INHERITABLE TRAITS perspective; believed intelligence was genetic and it ran in the family. Came up with statistical calculation of correlation; first to study intelligence in family; pioneered in eugenics, coined the term "nature vs. nurture".
Gestalt	an organized whole, emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes. perception is more than the sum of its parts
Retroactive Interference	new info in way of remembering old info
Psychology	study of the mind & behavior
Hindsight Bias	tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Overconfidence	tendency to be more confident than correct
Theory	explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes & predicts observations...hasn't been proven
Neuroscience Perspective	Explain behavior strictly in terms of biological processes; genes, hormones, & neurotransmitters
Operational Definition	statement of the procedures used to define research variables
Evolutionary Perspective	explains human thoughts & actions in terms of natural selection, we do what was advantageous for our ancestors because they lived long enough to pass on their genes
Case Study	intensive analysis of an individual unit
Psychodynamic Perspective	unconscious motives, childhood experiences, biological drives, and motivational forces influence our behavior; Psychodynamic theory mostly refers to followers of Freud, while Psychoanalytic refers to Freud exclusively
Survey	study a large group of people in less depth
Behavioral Perspective	focuses on observing behavior, & developing traits through classical & operant conditioning
False Consensus Effect	cognitive bias whereby a person tends to overestimate how much people agree with him/her
Cognitive Perspective	examines human thoughts & behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember events
Social-Cultural Perspective	Studies how we think & behave vary across different cultures & how our culture influences our thoughts & behaviors
Humanistic Perspective	looks at psychology in a sense that all humans are generally good & emphasizes free will and an individuals control of their behavior (associated with Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers)
Psychiatrist	medical practice that provides therapy for people with "Psychological disorders"....can use medicine (where a psychologist can't)
Cofounding Variables	extraneous variable whose presence affects the variables being studied so that the results you get do not reflect the actual relationship between the variables under investigation
Naturalistic Observation	research tool where a subject is observed in its natural habitat without any manipulation by the observer
Biological Psychology	study of the physiological bases of behavior ( anatomy, neurotransmitters, etc)
Neuron	nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system
Dendrite	branch-like structure of neurons that extend from the cell body
Myelin	surrounds the axon, serves to protect the axon & speed up neural impulses
Neurotransmitters	Chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons...when released by the sending neuron, neuro-transmitters travel across the synapse & bind to receptor sites on a receiving neuron
Statistical Significance	if a result is unlikely to have occurred by chance
Culture	the set of ideas, behaviors, attitudes, & traditions that exist within large groups of people
Dopamine	neurotransmitter meant to affect a person's movement, learning, attention, & emotion (too little is associated with ADHD and in extreme cases Parkinson's) (too much will trigger paranormal thoughts & hallucinations ie Schizophrenia)
Stratified Sample	mini-reproduction of the population
Measures of Central Tendency	1 number that represents a group of numbers (mean, median, mode)
Measures of Variability	concerned with the dispersion of the scores (range & standard deviation)
Serotonin	Controls the body's mood, sleep, hunger, & arousal (too little is associated with depression & possible anxiety & eating disorders)
Acetylcholine	neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction (too little is associated with Alzheimer's or memory loss)
Central Nervous System	brain & spinal cord
Brainstem	oldest part & central core of brain..beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull...responsible for automatic survival functions
Medulla	base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat & breathing
Reticular Formation	part of the brain that is involved in actions such as awaking/sleeping cycle, & filtering incoming stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background stimuli...one of oldest portions of brain
Thalamus	function includes relaying sensory & motor signals to the cerebral cortex, sits on top of brainstem
Cerebellum	region at the back of the brain that plays an important role in balance, motor control & implicit memories
Limbic System	set of brain structures including the hippocampus & the amygdala in the center of the brain involved in emotion & memory
Amygdala	brain part involved in processing emotions, particularly negative ones such as fear or anger
Hypothalamus	brain part that is involved in hunger, thrist, body temperature, & is link from the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
Cerebral Cortex	divided into left & right hemisphere...where info processing takes place...plays key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and consciousness
Glial Cells	non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, & provide support & protection for neurons in the brain
Lesion	tissue destruction...naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Hindbrain	posterior part of the brain, consists of the medulla, the pons & the cerebullum
EEG (electroencephalogram)	an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface..measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
Midbrain	portion of brain located just above the medulla & pons & contains basic vision & hearing functions as well as the nerve pathways between the cerebral hemispheres & the medulla oblongata...is input center for muscle movement
CT Scan	computed tomography scan...series of x-rays taken at different angles & combined into a 3D X-ray basically
Frontal Lobe	portion of cerebral cortex lying just behind forehead; involved in speaking & muscle movements & in making plans & judgements
PET Scan	visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task (colors)
Parietal Lobe	portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head & toward the rear...includes sensory cortex, involved in sensations such as smell & touch
MRI	uses magnetic fields & radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft-tissue..allows us to see structures within the brain
Occipital Lobe	portion of cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head..includes the visual areas..which receive info from the opposite visual field
Temporal Lobe	portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears...includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory info primarily from the opposite ear
Endocrine System	body's slow chemical communication system...set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones	Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands that are produced in 1 tissue and affect another....slow messengers but they affect many areas of the body
Adrenal Glands	pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys..secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help arouse the body in times of need
Motor Cortex (or Strip)	area at rear of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Pituitary Gland	endocrine systems most influential gland...under influence of hypothalamus, it regulates growth & controls other endocrine glands
Sensory Cortex (or Strip)	area at front of parietal lobes that registers & processes body sensations
Association Areas	areas of cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor/sensory functions; rather they are involved in higher mental functions ie learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking (humans have more space devoted to association than any other animal)
Phineas Gage	railroad worker whose frontal lobe was massively damaged after an iron rod was shot up his skull...although his mental abilities & memories were intact his personality was not...his moral compass became disconnected from his behavior
Aphasia	impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to either Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
Broca's Area	area of left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke's Area	area in left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension & expression
Enviroment	every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people & things around us
Identical Twins	twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in 2, creating genetically identical organisms
Plasticity	brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) & in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
Corpus Callosum	large band of neural fibers connecting the 2 brain hemispheres & carrying messages between them
Split Brain	Condition where the 2 hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them to control grand seizures...language is a left hemisphere task, these people cant report out loud what something is if they only see it with their left eye
Absolute Threshold	smallest level of energy required by an external stimulus to be detectable by the human senses (vision, taste, smell, and touch)
Wavelength	distance from one wave peak to the next
Hue	dimension of color that is detrmined by the wavelength of light (red-long wavelength) (purple- short wavelength)
Intensity	amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude..brightness, loudness (high amplitude: bright pink) (low amplitude: burnt orange)
Signal Detection Theory	Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)..assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivations, and level of fatigue
Iris	ring of muscle that forms colored protion of the eye around the pupil & controls size of pupil
Subliminal	below one's absolute threshold for constant awareness
difference threshold	minimum difference a person can detect between 2 stimuli..experience as just a noticeable difference (Weight: differ by 2%) (Pitch: tones must differ in frequency by 0.3%)(light: 8% difference in intensity)
Accomodation	change in shape of lens, focus near objects...lens loses it's ability to accomodate as we age, so it becomes more difficult to focus on near objects..explains why young children rarely need glasses
Weber's Law	principal that to perceive their difference, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant min percent rater than a constant amount..
Retina	inner surface, light sensitive, rods & cones within, layers of neurons, beginning of visual info processing
Sensory Adaptation	diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation
Nearsightedness	nearby objects seen more clear, lens focuses image of distant objects in front of retina
Farsightedness	condition where faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind retina
Colorblindness	inability/decreased ability to see color/perceive color differences, caused by a mutation on the X-chromosome & red-green color blindness is the most common
Color Constancy	perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
Audition	sense of hearing
Rods	retinal receptors that detect black, white, & gray; necessary for peripheral & twilight vision...when cones don't respond
Cones	receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of retina & that function in daylight/in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail & give rise to color sensations
Middle Ear	chamber between eardrum & cochlea containing 3 tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the ear drum of the cochlea's oval window
Optic Nerve	nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Blind Spot	point where the optic nerve laves the eye creating a blind spot because no receptor cells are located there
Fovea	central focal point in the retina, around where the eye's cones cluster
Cornea	transparent, dome-shaped tissue forming the front of the eye, covering the iris & pupil
Cochlea	coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger impulses
Semicircular Canals	house the fluid that monitors equilibrium (controls sense of balance)
Place Theory	theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated (pitch in ear)
Frequency Theory	theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch (pitch in brain)
Feature Detectors	nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, ie shape, angle or movement
Trichromatic Theory	theory that the retina contains 3 different color receptors- 1 sensitive to red, 1 to green, 1 to blue, which when stimulated in combo can produce perception of any color, can't explain color blindness
Conduction Hearing Loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Sensorineural Hearing Loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to auditory nerves (a.k.a nerve deafness)
Opponent Process Theory	theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision
Basic 4 Touch Sensations	Pressure, Warmth, Cold, Pain
Sensory Interaction	principle that 1 sense may influence another
Olfactory	cells that respond selectively to an aroma, the sense of smell
Relative Size	if we assume 2 objects as a similar size, we perceive the bigger 1 closer up, and the smaller 1 further away (monocular depth cue)
Interposition	if 1 object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer (monocular depth cue)
Motion Parallax	as we move, objects that are actually still will appear to move
Perceptual Constancy	perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination & retinal images change
Kinethesis	system for sensing the position & movement of individual body parts
Vestibuar Sense	sense of body movement & position including sense of balance(located in semicircular canals)
Selective Attention	focusing of conscious awareness of a particular stimulus

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AP Psychology Vocabulary Flashcards P.1

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