Personality Final Exam

Pregunta	Respuesta
Ego Psychology	Later psychoanalysts shifted attention from id to ego Freud all about sex and aggression and ego and superego responding to id “id psychology”
Psychosocial Development	Anna Freud – defense mechanisms of the ego Erikson – important powerful component of personality Mastering environment Achieving goals Establishing identity
Object Relations Theories	Patterns of interpersonal interactions are established in early childhood Subsequently these play out in adult relationships
Object Relations Theory: Mahler	Newborn begins life “fused” (identity) with the mother – “symbiosis” Infant does not recognize a differentiation between itself and its mother Around 6 months: “separation-individuation” process begins Child begins to explore more independently Conflict arises: child is torn between wanting to maintain the bond with mother, and feeling smothered by it – wants to separateIdeally the mother will both provide a stable base and encourage independent exploration Failure to do so may result in failure to establish a unique identity or will instill separation anxiety in the child By age 3: child creates “mother-as-object” – stable mental representation of mother that is carried around always In future mother will always be seen through this filter, as will many others in the person’s life The core of how you interact with others is established (personality)
Attachment Theory	“the close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers (usually mother first) Based on work of Bowlby and Ainsworth Observed that a clear preference (attachment) for mother at about 6-8 months of age Separation anxiety observed when they are apart Will also apply to other close caregivers Behaviorists attributed the “bond” to the powerful reinforcing even of being fed mother = a conditioned stimulus associated with nourishment
Attachment Theory: Harlow	disagreed, devised his monkey experiments to demonstrate his theory
Attachment Theory: Bowlby	heorized an evolutionary biological basis for this attachment Infants are “programmed” to emit behaviors (cooing, smiling, clinging) that in turn trigger protective, comforting affection responses from caregivers Ensures the survival of the infant
Attachment Theory: Ainsworth	Observed that mothers who are sensitive and responsive to their children’s needs evoke more secure attachments Quality of attachment clearly influenced my mother’s behavior But also influenced by child’s behavior Recall the triggering behaviors suggested by Bowlby Difficult children slow or even impair the attachment process
Ainsworth Secure attachment	Play comfortably with mother present Visibly upset when she leaves Quickly calmed by her return Mother is attentive, responsive, approving As adults: happy love relationships, trusting, longer lasting relationships
Ainsworth Anxious ambivalent attachment	Anxious even when mother is near Excessively upset when she leaves Not particularly comforted when she returns Mothers: inconsistently responsive As adults: love is obsessive, extreme emotional highs and lows, jealousy; dependency
Ainsworth Avoidant attachment	Seek little contact with mother Not distressed when she leaves Mothers: distant, emotionally unavailable, rejecting or neglectful As adults: less accepting of partners’ imperfections; cynical about love; low emotional intimacy; discomfort with sex
Psychosocial Development	Ego – establishes secure identity Inner sense of who we are, makes us unique, feeling of wholeness “identity crisis” Depression and confusion of not having a strong sense of identity
Psychosocial Development: Erikson’s Stages	Freud: personality forms by age 5 Erikson: life span development “latency period”, BUT: Start school Learning to work Satisfaction from success Social skills, sharing, cooperation Disagreement on nature of the conflicts Freud: sexual Erikson: social “fixation”: personality development may be arrested and continue to affect the person through life
Infancy (year 1) — Trust vs. Mistrust	Who will take care of me? Will they do a good job? Can I trust them? Basis for proving the world and people are predictable
Early Childhood (yrs. 2–3) — Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt	Experimenting with new abilities Testing their powers – how much of the world do I control? Basis for feelings of control and competency, self confidence
Preschool (yrs 3–5) — Initiative vs. Guilt	Start to imitate adults, practice adult tasks Work together, follow leaders, resolve disputes Basis for a sense of power in the world – initiative, ambition, goal seeking
School age (yrs 5–11) — Industry vs. Inferiority	Start comparing themselves to heir age mates May develop sense of competence and achievement Basis for sense of value, citizenship
Identity vs. Role Confusion (yrs. 12–20)	Erikson – most important goal of development “Who am I?” “How do others view me?” Role experimentation Basis for an integrated sense of private and social self Must be achieved If not tends to be shallow and/or unstable Must have the crisis and emerge with firm sense of self, values Without exploration or crisis > “identity foreclosure” (moralistic, conventional, no depth to beliefs)
Young Adulthood (20’s) — Intimacy vs. Isolation	Beginning to connect with others (friends, intimates) Emotional, growth – caring, nurturing, providing Basis for close, warm relationships Or else isolation
Adulthood (to 60’s) — Generativity vs. Stagnation	Have you generated something of value in life? Or stagnating? Basis for positively influencing the future
Old Age —Integrity vs. Despair	Start to separate from life (career, children, hobbies) – preparing to face death “was it all worth it?” “did I accomplish most of what I wanted?” Basis for sense of order and meaning in life
Applying Erikson	Each stage does not have to be completed perfectly and positively e.g., healthy mistrust, knowing when to trust or not Stages not necessarily inflexible or sequential Individual & cultural differences (e.g., later life occupational identity changes Woman transitioning from parenting to career
Erikson In Conclusion	Later applied his work to understanding the identity development of historical figures (e.g., Mahatma Gandhi) Wanted to understand the social, historical and psychological forces plus accidental circumstances leading to a history-changing personality “psychohistory” Erikson’s work embraced by many other disciplines of study (sociology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology) Psychoanalytic ideas that were acceptable where Freud’s certainly were not
The Behavioral Viewpoint	reaction to Freud no imaginary constructs observable behavior & environmental conditions behavior results from past learning Person as “machine-like” Collection of machine-like mechanisms How do these mechanisms learn? Response to environmental inputs “determinism”: Events are caused by or determined by some prior event Something that can be understood by basic laws of science Human behavior is caused in a lawful and scientific manner
Classical Conditioning:	- neutral stimuli elicit involuntary responses (e.g. fear, sadness, anxiety) - case of Little Albert & white rat - loud noise >>> afraid of rat
Operant Conditioning:	shaped by reinforcement & punishment - e.g., child’s tantrums - apply to depressed woman? : Reinforcement – consequence that increases likelihood of repeating a behavior PRIMARY: biological (food, water) SECONDARY: conditioned (e.g., $$$) Punishment – consequence that DEcreases likelihood of repeating a behavior PRIMARY: biological (pain) SECONDARY: conditioned (take away privilege) Extinction – behavior stops because no longer being reinforced
Positive vs Negative	HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH GOOD OR BAD Positive: recipient gets something new Negative: something is taken away
Schedules of Reinforcement	Frequency and pattern of behavior consequences Continuous reinforcement – EVERY time But most behaviors not rewarded every time (often not practical) Intermittent or Partial reinforcement – periodically given
ratio schedule	reinforced after a certain number of times of doing the behavior Fixed – exactly every 5th time Variable – inconsistent, but averages every 5th time
interval schedule	Interval schedule: only reinforced after a certain period of time has passed, no matter how many times the behavior has happened Also fixed and variable patterns
Fixed Ratio Schedule	Fixed Ratio Schedule High rate of responding – with short pauses after each reinforcement - Knows he wont get rewarded the next time
variable Ratio Schedule	variable Ratio Schedule Even higher rate of response – and with no pauses after reinforcements e.g., gambling
Fixed Interval Schedule	Fixed Interval Schedule Much lower response rate - person knows he wont get rewarded for a while, so less incentive to engage the behavior – hence the scallop pattern
Variable Interval Schedule	Variable Interval Schedule Lower rate of behavior, but no scalloping – consistent and regular behavior – has no idea when he will be rewarded
Schedules of Reinforcement: Impact on Future Responding	Continuous reinforcement: Good for establishing new behavior – frequent pairing of behavior and reward But very easily extinguished Variable schedule slower to establish but much less vulnerable to extinction Begin with continuous, then switch to variable schedule to maintain
The Behavioral Viewpoint	But what about free will?? Behaviorist: people are not free to choose behavior Basic assumptions: Must be explained by influence by the environment – no internal processes Built on controlled laboratory research
Behaviorism: Assumption #1	Physical objects in a physical universe Determined by same physical laws Just like the ball tossed in the air Attitudes, beliefs, feelings, thoughts are irrelevant in explaining the person Thoughts, feelings are also just behaviors You did not freely choose to be here – your environment brought you here All of these things are determined solely by environmental factors Must be scientific to be credible All behavior is determined by general laws of learning Therefore “theories of personality” are irrelevant – not needed Need only the laws of learning Situational specificity If environment is cause (not stable internal processes) then behavior must vary by situation Different conditions of reward and punishment What about psychopathology?? Not seen as an illness of the mind Caused by maladaptive environmental conditions So therapy not directed at internal conflicts Need to create new learning
behaviourism assumption #2	Understanding comes from controlled laboratory research If behavior is environmentally caused, need to study by manipulating variables experimentally Must only study observable things Accurately measurable environmental and behavioral variables Behaviorist shuns other fields that look at id, superego, thoughts, extraversion, needs, etc But there are challenges: Impractical or unethical to manipulate certain variables with humans Often too complex or hard to measure in humans Solution is to study simple responses in animals (rats, pigeons) Generalizability????
behavioursim evaluation	Major Contributions: Committed to systematic research Improvement on psychoanalytic predecessors They only theorized Major Contributions: Drew psychology to external variables Ws previously all internal, intrapsychic processes Observations were in artificial environments Behaviorist emphasized need to understand the person in his natural setting Major Limitations: Based in animal research Missing out on uniquely human abilities Language Reasoning about he past Consider future possibilities They ignore the things that make us human (generalizability question)
Downside of Behaviorism	Passive reactors to the environment – fully determined, no free will Ignores basic human qualities Social cognitive theory (1950s) arose from this
Social-Cognitive Theory – Basics	Began as “social learning theory” Thought processes should be central to personality theory Cognition develops socially Result of social interactions Psychoanalysis overemphasizes unconscious forces and influence of early childhood Much cognition is unconscious, but conscious thinking processes are of greater importance Early childhood is important BUT people develop and grow across the life span Behaviorism: controlled by rewards and punishments But people do have some control Capacity to think – can motivate and direct action “human agency” – people play an active role in own development Introduced observational learning
Social Cognition: Theory of Person	“What is a person?” Can reason using language Reason about past, present and future Reflection on the self But psychoanalysts: animalistic forces Behaviorist: machines, based on animal research Trait theory: Big Five in animals Social cognitive: human personality must be based in unique human qualities Critical implication: People have the ability to overcome environment and impulses to gain control over their lives
Social-Cognitive Theory: Structures of Personality	Competencies and skills Behavior differences may be due to skill differences e.g., introverted behavior: lack social skills?? e.g., conscientious: high cognitive skill, can meet social norms Especially interested in problem solving and coping competencies Competence = ways of thinking about problems + skills in executing solutions Implications: Competencies may only be relevant in some situations Person competent in some contexts but not in others Contrast with trait theory Competencies have been learned, so new ones can be developed Remaining structures based in how we think about he world: Beliefs/expectancies Evaluative standards goals 2. Expectancies Primary determinant of our actions How will others respond? What will our rewards and punishments be? Can we cope with stresses? Expectancies vary across contexts Essence of per
processes of personality	Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality Reciprocal determinism New type of learning: observational learning (modeling) Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality Reciprocal determinism: Must consider person, environment and the behavior in any cause/effect relationship What causes what? Behaviorist: environment >> behavior Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality 2-way street, all cause each other Conversation: Environment > behavior Personality > environment Personality > behavior > environment Behavior/environment > personality B P E Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality Bandura: “internal vs external” debate is meaningless All causal relationships are a system, all affecting each other mutually We select situations and are shaped by them Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality Observational Learning (modeling): Looking to understand acquisition of new skills (via observational learning) Exerting control over behaviors and emotions (self regulation)
processes of personality	Behaviorist: we learn new skills by trial and error (shaping) But what about learning to drive a car? Sometimes errors too costly Also takes a long time Bandura: you actually knew how to drive a car fairly well before you got started (observation) Benefit of cognitive capacity – learn quickly by observation Not just exact mimicking, but learning general behavioral concepts Models may be directly observed but media is important (e.g. violence on TV) Acquisition vs performance acquire new behavior via observation, but will we actually perform it? Bobo doll experiment Conditions: no response, reward, punishment Likelihood of performing was related to the condition So the observation of the consequences to the model seems to affect performance of the behavior but not acquisition Bandura suggested children actually learning emotional responses – sympathize with model “vicarious conditioning” Numerous experiments: observation of a conditioned fear response will lead to acquisition of that fear Often long–lasting, intense and generalized
depression	Setting goals too high – failure Leads to depressed mood Leads to undervaluing accomplishments Misery Worthlessness purposelessness Misjudge own performance Distorted memory Standards too high – all is failure Berate own performance even in face of praise Goals /standards higher than perceived self-efficacy
phobias	Direct contact, inappropriate generalization, observational Extinction prevented by avoidance Bandura: media to blame Maintained by negative reinforcement
Aggressive Behavior (causes):	Aggressive Behavior (causes): Observation of others Direct experience of reinforcement Training
Aggressive Behavior (maintenance):	Aggressive Behavior (maintenance): Enjoy inflicting harm (pos reinforcement) Avoiding consequences of NOT fighting (neg reinforcement) Punishment for NOT being aggressive Living up to personal standards (self reinforcement) Observation of rewards to others
Social-Cognitive Theory: Treatment	Behaviors continue because they serve a purpose Change is very difficult Goal is self-regulation Specific behavior change Generalization of change Relapse prevention Create change (climb tall ladder) Generalize the change to more and more relevant situations (flying, tall buildings) Bandura: Overt (vicarious) modeling Observe a model > less anxiety Covert (cognitive) modeling Visualize a model Enactive mastery Perform actual behavior, fear is reduced
humanistic psychology: main theories	abraham maslow, carl rogers key concept: self actualization -believed tat people wanted to grow -maslow studied the healthiest, best adjusted people
maslow- self actualization	-what motivates there healthy people? -motivation: reducing tension by satisfying deficits states (things that are lacking) -deficiency (D needs) requirements for physiological surveyor orsaftey
d needs (basic characteristics)	1. absence breeds illness 2. presence prevents illness 3. restoration cures illness 4. free choice, it is preferred 5. inactive, seemingly absent in the healthy person
metamotivation	growth tendencies
Being needs (B needs)	from drive to self actualize, fulfill potential-enhance, enrich life -D needs take precedence, if not met, presents work towards B needs -uniquely studied highly healthy people - people "fulfilling themselves and doing the best they're capable of doing" -aquaintances, celebrities- characteristics, habits, abilities -not scientific, not standardized
marlows hierarchy of needs	top to bottom: 1. self actualization needs 2. aesthetic needs (symmetry, order, beauty) 3. cognitive needs ( to know, understand and explore) 4. esteem needs (to achieve, be competent, gain approval/ recognition) 5. belongingness needs 6. safety needs 7. physiological needs
maslow: self actualization peak experiences	-intensification of an experience- "transcendence of self" -often called mystical or religious -maybe just everyday activities -as one with the world -life altering -no one fits all characteristics -but they are not perfect (wasteful moments, may be vain, lose temper) -a process not an end, requires effort to maintain -familial, economic, political, educational impeeds the process
Maslow: Self actualization	-experience fully, vividly, concentration -making growth choices, not fear based -develop sense of self, honesty -courage, wise life judgements -recognize ongoing process -have peak experiences -eliminates ego defences
Maslow: Self actualization	-less than 1% of population -criticized as too simplistic- ignores hard work, pain, tragedy -think far less possible that maslow thought (can only strengthen the ego)
Maslow: Self actualization	-also too american focused -personality based in self esteem -anxiety and depression seen as failures of this -But Japan, China, deemphasize this not autonomy but collective -also male focused
Maslow: Self actualization men vs. women	men: more about accomplishment women: interpersonal connections
Humanism : Carl Rogers	- we believe that what we see is the objective reality "i do not react to some absolute reality but to my perception of reality" -what we see is the private world of experience
phenomenological field	-sum total of our perceptions -constructed using both outer reality and inner goals, beliefs, needs -we are not consciously aware of this construction of reality - rogers based his work on the idea that this construction is a reflection of personal needs
psychological distress	alienation, detachment- my experiences don't stem from authentic self - outside pressures to supress>> detachment from self
Rogers, inner values and insitutions	goal is to find match between experiences and inner values -our nature is essentially positive -drive toward personal growth institutions: -religion (inherently evil) -psychoanalysis (agressive, sexual) -when functioning freely, we are positive , mature
Rogers: The "self"	the piece of phenomenological experience known as "I" or "Me" - actual and ideal (what we would most like to be)
self actualization	personal growth is fundamental -simple to complex, dependence to independence, rigity to change -reduction of tension is part, but also pleasure, satisfaction from enhancing the organism
evidence that self-actualization predicts	-self esteem -health -self reported self actualization -happiest when pursuing congurent goals
seek self consistency and congruence self and experience	- we develop a value system, including a valuation of the self -our values and functions work to preserve this system -want to behave consistent with this system, even if unrewarding -also strive for congruence between self and our experience
congruence	-open genuine match between self and own actions -we are driven to seek congruent experiences
anxiety results from incongruence	must defend the self>> defensive processes - may block some experiences from conscious awareness
subception defences distortion	subception: recognize threat before concious awareness defences: denial- simialr to freud distortion: more common -conciously aware,but distorted to be consistent with self -not bad experience, but any disrepency
donahue and colleagues (1993)	-some highly variable, others very consistent -cosistent= coherent, integrated self -inconsistent= specialized role identities>> fliexibility, adaptibility -high variable correlated with anxiety, depression, low self esteem -conflictual realtionships with parents, less satisfaction with relationships and careers
self is fragmented	-but need to consider how you feel about the variability -if not comfortable, person needs to work toward unified self image -who do you want to be, behave consistently
why is consistency so important?	-basic need for "positive regard" to be accepted and respected by others
very powerful need	-can derail efforts to grow -can lose touch with true feelings and values -become detached from the true self -infants need positive regard, parents tell us what is good and expected. Ideally parents give unconditional positive regard but most often conditional on certain behaviour, standards
Roger, no need for ____ & _____	motives, drives person is basically self actualizing but may be blocked but need for positive regard -learn to deny or distort
george kelly	PhD in psych 1931 -travelling psych clinic in kansas -started to notice that the complaints also said something about the teachers ex. someone laying head down during your presentation
Kelly; referral says "student is lazy"	would look at both the childs behaviour and the teachers way of perceiving
Kelly; teacher is forming a construction of the students behaviour	-very different view of the teachers compaint -by looking at both teacher and student, opens up a wide range of new potential solutions
Kelly; there is no absolute, objective truth	-events are only meaningful in relation to ways they are interpreted by the observer
Kelly; personal constructs	- how we percieve, interpret, conceptualize -differences form the basis of personality -produce emotions, goals, behaviours
Kelly similarties to Roger	-both claim that we construct a view of our world and respond just to that view -kelly dug deeper -constuct= ideas or categories to interpret the world -some are universal, others are much more individual
Kelly; view of the person	scientists and people are doing the same thing- predicting events -we develop ideas to help predict significant life events -and to predict how to achieve these outcomes
implications	1. people are orientated towards the future 2. we can use different theories to make different kinds of predictions -think about our environment -rethink our usual ways of understanding -develop alternative formulations -new strategies for coping
Behaviourists Kelly	B-people passively respond to the environment (lack free will) K-we think actively about the world and about our own thinking -can judge our way of thinking and change if we choose -gives us free will
Kelly; theory of personality (structure)	always trying to make sense of events around us, need to use pre existing knowledge to do so. -look for similarities between events -constucts describe not only the target person, but also tell us about the person doing the describing -big goal of constructs is to be able to predict events (based on constructs learned from past events)
negative emotions; anxiety	-events are outside your range of convince- doesn't fir into your pre existing view/ cannot predict -may choose to broaden the construct to fit in the new experience -reduces anxiety -ex. find self acting in a selfish way you could expand construct to include this behaviour OR could restrict "caring person" so that it only counts with close friends
threat; negative emoition	when you become more aware of major change to core constructs ex. jealousy current: secure, good self esteem but if something happens, sudden imminent change to constructs ( alone, rejected)
Kelly;psychopathology	therapy: help person to change constructs systems leading to improved prediction -some constructs replaced, new ones added, some tightened, some loosened, change permeability
cognitive psychology: schemas`	similar to personal constructs -used to make sense of the world, guides info processing -filter for all incoming sensations for interpretation, understanding and storage
the self schema	internal definition to filter information about ourselves -self schema and resultant emotional and behavioural responses determine personality -we bossess mulitple selves for different contexts -in each situation a different self schema enters working memory creating the current "working self concept"
self maintaining	biased attention, recall to be consistent with schemas
self schema: maintenance	not just passive processing- processing is motivated by self -maintenance -self enhancement and self verification -not surprising that people are biased to see selves in positive light
self verification motive	we pull for feedback that confirms self concept ex. extraverted person
maintenance	-we tend to seek relationships with people who see us as we see ourself BUT some evidence that inconsistent info can lead to physical health problems -positive events can be stressful if disrupt negative self concept
negative self concept	we still tend to look for self confirmation common in depression
clinical applications	most popular, empirically supported -several common assumptions to CT
clinical applications 1-5	1. cognitions (attributions, beliefs, expectations, memories) determining feelings and behaviours 2. important cognitions often specific to the situation 3. psychopathology arises from distorted cognitive interpretations (self, others, world) 4. distorted thoughts create feelings, behaviours, which can create more faulty cognitions (creates cycle to maintain and strengthen schemas) 5. collorbarative effort to uncover, challenge and correct distorted cognitions
schemas in cognitive therapy	need to process information quickly and efficiently -rapid, automatic, mostly unconcious -not always rational or logical -normal to use schemas- constantly doing so -
black and white thinking	"if he forgets my birthday he can't possibly love me
overgeneralization	she hates me, i bet everyone hates me
selective abstraction	only see the bad things that happen
catastophizing	think about their worst possible outcome, everything is the end of the world
excessive self refrence	certain everyone noticing you (ex.social phobia)
schemas and automatic thoughts	therapy: identify distortions in thoughts/ interpretations -gather evidence to support and dispute -create interpretations based on full consideration of evidence -results in change in emotional and behavioural response

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