Memory (GIP A)

Nota:

• memory: cognitive function involved in the processing and retention of information that can be retrieved at a later stage 

1. routines
   1. 1. acquisition (encoding)

      Nota:

      • registration of sensory information
      1. stage theory of memory
         1. short-term memory (working memory)

            Nota:

            • - low storage capacity - slower decay of information (sec-min)
            1. shallow processing

               Nota:

               • superficial characteristics of a stimulus
            2. deep processing

               Nota:

               • meaning of the material
            3. primacy effects

               Nota:

               • tendency for the first items presented in a series to be remembered better or more easily, or for them to be more influential than those presented later in the series   
            4. recency effects

               Nota:

               • principle that the most recently presented items or experiences will most likely be remembered best
         2. long-term memory

            Nota:

            • - high storage capacity - slow decay of information (hours-years)
      2. mnemonics

         Nota:

         • deliberate techniques people use to memorize new materials (e.g. use of mental imagery, organize material by linking first letters of words in sequence that’s being memorized) non-interactive depiction vs interactive depiction   
   2. 2. saving (storage)

      Nota:

      • forming a permanent representation of information (memory trace)
      1. chunking

         Nota:

         • - memory capacity is measured in chunks - incorporating a number of units into a large unit - process through which items are recoded into smaller number of larger units
      2. memory trace

         Nota:

         • physical record in nervous system that preserves a memory
      3. memory consolidation

         Nota:

         • biological process through which memories are transformed from a transient and fragile status to a more permanent and robust state (happens over several hours)
      4. encoding specifity

         Nota:

         • hypothesis that when information is stored in memory, it is not recoded in its original form but translated (“encoded”) into a form that includes the thoughts and understanding of the learner 
   3. 3. loading (retrieval)

      Nota:

      • reactivation of the stored information (Recall & Recognition)   
      1. retrieval failures
         1. tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) effect

            Nota:

            • condition in which one remains on the verge of retrieving a word or name but continues to be unsuccessful   
      2. retrieval cues

         Nota:

         • a hint or signal that helps one to recall a memory
         1. retrieval paths

            Nota:

            • the mental connection linking one idea to the next that people use to locate a bit of information in memory
         2. context reinstatement

            Nota:

            • a way of improving retrieval by re-creating the state of mind that accompanied the initial learning
2. memory gaps and errors
   1. why do we forget?
      1. natural decay

         Nota:

         • metabolic processes cause atrophy on cellular level and loss of functional connections in the brain   
      2. interference
         1. proactive interference

            Nota:

            • difficulties in learning new information because of already existing information   
         2. retroactive interference

            Nota:

            • difficulties in retrieving old information because of new information   
   2. memory distortions (intrusions)
      1. misinformation effect

         Nota:

         • the phenomenon that people answering subjective questions recall wrong information about an event that took place  → intrusions resulting from activation of cognitive schemes/stereotypes → intrusions as a result of making semantic associations
      2. false memories

         Nota:

         • missing elements in a memory trace are filled in by the person (confabulation) internal factor: problems with dissociating dreams and fantasies from reality   
      3. intrusion errors

         Nota:

         • memory mistakes in which elements that were not part of the original information get mixed into (“intrude” into) someone’s recall   
   3. memory disorders
      1. Alzheimer's disease

         Nota:

         • caused by - excessive damage to brain tissue - neurons die off over time - build up of Amygloid plagues in the brain earliest symptoms: 1) loss of memory/attention 2) loss of semantic memory 3) loss of abstract thinking later also: 4) severe language difficulty 5) emotional instability 6) loss of bodily functions   
      2. Korsakoff syndrome

         Nota:

         • symptoms: anterograde & retrograde amnesia, confabulating caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) = malnutrition most commonly caused by alcoholism or eating disorders   
   4. memory loss
3. forms of memory
   1. explicit memory

      Nota:

      • conscious memories that can be described at will and can be triggered by a direct question   
      1. declarative knowledge

         Nota:

         • knowledge of information that can be expressed in words   
      2. semantic memory

         Nota:

         • memory for general facts (including word meanings); these memories are not tied to any specific time or place
      3. episodic memory

         Nota:

         • memory for specific events and experiences (personal facts)   
      4. flashbulb memories

         Nota:

         • vivid, detailed memories said to be produced by unexpected and emotionally important events
   2. implicit memory

      Nota:

      • memories that we may not recall consciously, but that are still demonstrable through an indirect test
      1. procedural memory

         Nota:

         • knowledge of how to do something, expressed in behaviors rather than words   
      2. priming

         Nota:

         • non-declarative form of memory: faster recognition of a certain stimulus when this stimulus was observed before   
      3. perceptual learning

         Nota:

         • non-declarative form of learning where our sensory system effectively adapts to new circumstances
   3. sensory memory
      1. iconic memory (visual)
      2. echoic memory (auditory)
4. neural basis
   1. consolidation

      Nota:

      • biological process through which memories are transformed from a transient and fragile status to a more permanent and robust state (happens over several hours)
      1. hippocampus
   2. valence
      1. amygdala
   3. storage
      1. cingulate cyrus