C3

1. Long reaction times
2. Rusting

1. Short reaction times
2. Burning & Explosions

1. Slow reaction
   1. Small amount of product in a long time
2. Fast Reaction
   1. Large amount of product in a short time
3. Rate increased by
   1. Higher temp
      1. particles collide more often
         1. And with more energy, resulting in more successful collisions each second
   2. High concentration
      1. Particles are closer together and collide more often
   3. High Pressure
   4. Crushing solids into powders
      1. Greater surface area so collisions happen more often
   5. Using a catalyst
      1. Alters rate but is unchanged at the end

         Nota:

         • eg: If 1g of a catalyst is added to a reaction mixture, there is still 1g of it left after the reaction has finished.

1. Calcium Carbonate + Hydrochloric acid --> Calcium Chloride + Water + Carbon Dioxide
   1. CaCO3+ 2HCl --> CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
   2. How It Works

      Nota:

      • The reaction starts when the calcium carbonate and acid are mixed together. Carbon dioxide pushes the plunger out, and its volume is read at regular intervals from the graduations on the gas syringe.
2. The amount of product formed is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the amount of limiting reactant

   Nota:

   • eg: If the mass of calcium carbonate is doubled, the amount of carbon dioxide also doubles

1. Used for bulk chemicals which are needed in large amounts
   1. Ammonia in the Haber process
      1. Reactants are continually fed into a reaction vessel, where they react together
      2. The ammonia produced is collected all the time
   2. Sulfuric acid
   3. Chlorine

1. Wine
   1. Grapes are pressed to release the grape juice, which is then fermented to produce wine
2. Speciality Chemicals
   1. High value chemicals needed in small amounts
      1. Made on demand when a customer needs them
3. Pharmaceuticals
   1. Raw materials needed may be made synthetically using chemical reactions or extracted from plants
      1. Several steps are needed to extract chemicals from plants
         1. 1. Crush plant material
            1. 2. Dissolve in a suitable solvent and then filter
               1. 3. Boil to evaporate the solvent
                  1. 4. Separate the chemical by chromatography

Nota:

• Suitable new substances must be identified, then tested to make sure they are safe and effective.

1. Tests

   Nota:

   • Thousands of new substances may be made and tested in the development of a new drug.
   • The 1st tests involve computer simulations and tests on cells grown in the laboratory. The most promising substances are tested on laboratory animals
   • If it passes these first stages, a substance is checked for side effects in healthy human volunteers. It is then tested on a small group of patients to see if it works as expected, and then on a larger group to gather more information on it.
   • All stages in development are expensive and time consuming.

Nota:

• Many skilled people are needed

Nota:

• Electricity and fuel are needed and these are expensive

Nota:

• The raw materials may be rare or expensive, and complex chemical reactions may be needed to make a drug from them

Nota:

• Research and testing take a long time, and a new drug must be licenced for use.

Nota:

• Healthcare professionals have to be told about the drug and how to use it.

1. If the patent expires earlier than this, the company may lose a lot of money on the drug
   1. A patent lasts up to 20 years and prevents other companies from making and selling the drug
      1. Once it expires, anyone is free to produce and sell it

1. Important to make pharmaceutical drugs as pure as possible
   1. Testing the purity of pharmaceuticals

      Nota:

      • It is tested by measuring its melting or boiling point, as impurities alter the temperature at which a drug melts or boils. The further the temperature is away from the correct one, the less pure the drug is.
      • It can also be tested by TLC ( Thin Layer Chromatography). The different substances move through the a thin layer of of powder coated onto a glass or plastic plate. Colourless substances show up as spots on the plates when reacted with certain chemicals. These may be fluorescent under ultra violet light, or they may become coloured when heated.