Chapter 6

Question	Answer
Scholasticism	the synthesis of Christian theology with the scientific beliefs of classical authors.
Alchemy	studying compounds of the four elements and their proportions.
Inductive Reasoning(Empiricism)	Bacon attacked medieval scholasticism, arguing that rather than relying on tradition, it was necessary to examine evidence from nature.
Deductive Thought (rationalism)	Rationalism used reason to go from general principles to specific principles.
Absolutism	Man forms a state to restrain the human urge to destroy one another. The sovereign has complete and total power over his subjects. Subjects are obliged never to rebel, and the sovereign must put down rebellion through any means.
Tabula Rasa	he argued that children enter the world with the mind as a blank slate
Thomas Aquinas	The primary architect of scholasticism He took the works of Aristotle and merged them with Church teachings. Knowledge of God remained the supreme act of learning.
Ptolemy	the work of the Greek astronomer Ptolemy (circa 85-165) was unquestioned. The Ptolemaic, or Geocentric, system placed Earth as a stationary object and the center of the universe.
Nicholas Copernicus	a Polish mathematician and astronomer, wrote Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. Afraid of the implications of his work, he waited many years to publish. He suggested that if the Earth revolved around the sun, it would solve some of the problems seen in the Ptolemaic system. The Copernican, or Heliocentric, system explained planets as moving in a circular orbit around the sun.
Tycho Brahe	He proposed that the moon and sun revolved around Earth, and other planets revolved around the sun.
Johannes Kepler	A student of Brahe used his teacher’s data to support the Copernican system. He proposed that instead of circles, Earth and other planets had an elliptical orbit around the sun.
Galileo Galilei	Galileo designed his own telescope that magnified far away objects thirty times the naked eye’s capacity. Noticed the moon had a mountainous structure similar to Earth. Realized that stars were much further away than the planets. Saw that Jupiter had four moons. Noticed sunspots and the rings of Saturn. Galileo was also interested in motion, and through his experiments he deduced the possibility that the Earth is in perpetual motion. His findings pushed him to question the findings of Aristotle, medieval scholars, and the entire Ptolemaic construct. Galileo published his findings in the Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World (1632). Galileo was tried by the Roman Inquisition: he was suspected of heresy, forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Sir Isaac Newton	Newton hoped to explain the manner in which the planets revolve around the sun. After two decades of work Newton published his masterpiece, Principia, in 1687. Newton explained that all planets and objects in the universe operated under the effects of gravity. Newton also experimented with optics, and helped to make the study of light a new scientific endeavor. He was also the father of differential calculus. he became the head of the British Royal Society. The organization was committed to spreading the new spirit of experimentation.
Francis Bacon	While he didn’t perform scientific experiments, he contributed the idea of experimental methodology. He wrote 3 major works: The Advancement of Learning, Novum Organum, and New Atlantis. Bacon attacked medieval scholasticism, arguing that rather than relying on tradition, it was necessary to examine evidence from nature. In France this debate begun by Bacon over the new learning was called the conflict between the ancients and the moderns. In England this was called the “Battle of the Books.”
Renee Descartes	anti-Bacon preferred deductive thought In his most famous quote “I think, therefore I am,” he stripped away his belief in everything except his own existence. He doubted all ideas produced in the medieval era. Descartes’ system can be found in his Discourse on Method (1637). He reduced everything in nature to two distinct elements: mind and matter. The mind involved the soul and spirit, the world of religion. Matter he believed was made up of an infinite number of particles, operating as a mechanism.
William Harvey	used dissections to show the role the heart plays in the circulation of blood through the body.
Thomas Hobbes	His contact with leading scientists led him to apply the scientific method to the study of politics. Hobbes was horrified by the English Revolution and convinced of the depravity of human nature. In his classic work, Leviathan, he wrote that life without government was “nasty, brutish, and short.” Hobbes’ view of humanity led him to propose the idea of absolutism.
John Locke	was interested in political science. He wrote Two Treatises on Government, which was published after William and Mary came to power. His key thoughts included: Man is born free in nature, but government is needed to organize society. As a free entity, man enters into a social contract with the state. Man does not give up his natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Should an oppressive government challenge those rights, man has the right to rebel. He was an opponent of religious zeal, and attacked the idea that Christianity could be spread by force. In his Essay on Human Understanding, he argued that children enter the world with the mind as a blank slate, a tabula rasa.
The discovery of the New World's effect on science	Discoveries of new plants and animals led to a greater interest in the natural sciences. Advances in navigation and astronomy helped fuel an interest in learning about the stars.
The printing press's effect on science	Scientific knowledge could be spread more rapidly because of the press. By the late 1600s, numerous books and newsletters kept people informed about the most recent scientific discoveries.
Nation-state rivalry's effect on science	Constant warfare between kingdoms may have pushed scientific development by placing an importance on technology or applied science. Europe was a region with many powerful leaders who could fund scientific development.
The reformation's effect on science	The Protestant Reformation encouraged people to read the Bible, helping to create a larger reading public. Leaders such as Luther and Calvin were an example of challenging established authority.
Humanism's effect on science	Humanist interest in classical writings led to the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman scientific texts. Examples included Archimedes’ writings on mathematics and Galen’s anatomical studies.
Aristotle's four elements	earth, air, water, and fire.
The Humours	blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile.
The Geocentric or Ptolemaic System	placed Earth as a stationary object and the center of the universe.
The heliocentric or Copernican System	system explained planets as moving in a circular orbit around the sun.
What Galileo discovered with his telescope	Noticed the moon had a mountainous structure similar to Earth. Realized that stars were much further away than the planets. Saw that Jupiter had four moons. Noticed sunspots and the rings of Saturn.
Galileo's conflict with the Church	Galileo published his findings in the Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World (1632). The book angered Pope Urban VIII and the Jesuits, who felt attacked by his writings. Galileo was tried by the Roman Inquisition: he was suspected of heresy, forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Battle of the Books	In France this debate begun by Bacon over the new learning was called the conflict between the ancients and the moderns. In England this was called the “Battle of the Books.”

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