Democracy and Political Participation

Democracy
1. Definition: Very general description of various political systems that are organised on the basis that gov should serve the interests of the people. In liberal democracies, it is also expected that citizens should influence decisions or make decisions themselves. It is also expected that gov should be accountable, in various ways to the people.
2. Adapting description of 19th century American President Abraham Lincoln
  1. Gov of the people: Furthest from Lincolns definition. Citizens able to participate in political activity (standing for elected office, voting in elections, active in parties/ pressure groups, being aware/ letting political views be known. In modern democracies, many are inactive but majority active and everyone has opportunity to participate. Described as participatory democracy. If citizens cease to be active in politics, democracy will die.
  2. Gov by the people: (1)State of affairs where the people themselves make important decisions that affect them. Described as direct democracy, an arrangement that entails constant use of referendums or direct consultation processes. (2)Circumstance where gov is intensely sensitive to public opinion. Virtually direct democracy. All democratic governments consult the people.
  3. Gov for the people: Suggests whoever governs us does so in broad interests of the people. They aren't governing in their own interests, nor concern themselves with just 1 section of community. Take into account interests/needs of all sections of society. Pure direct democracy all the time isn't feasible, it's inevitable that government for the people carried out by representatives. Representative democracy most common. If MPs, ministers etc are accountable to the people we entrust government to them.
3. Why is democracy important?
  1. Establishes & protects freedom- end of 18th century, menkind should be free both as individuals & collectively as nations. French Revolution 1789 (attempt to free people from autocratic rule of monarchy, (ruled for itself & aristocracy democracy needed to include middle& working classes)). Americans during revolution against British rule fought for freedom from rule of George III. Constitution wrote & approved 1787 enshrined freedom of individual in representative democray gov. Today no gov can threaten freedom unless with consent of the people e.g Soviet Union collapsed 1990 satillite states declared freedom, new govs adopted democratic systems that guaranteed domination that occurred during Cold War couldn't reassert itself. Arab Spring 2011-12 people of Arab states (Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Bahrain, Syria) rose up to overthrow authoritarian regimes & replace with popular democracy.
  2. Democracy protects minorities- system must take into account interests/demands of minority groups for democracy to be effective/enduring. All groups have access to political process (pluralist democracy). Minorities have free voice & free from discrimination. Democracy 'political system where minorities rule'. Where democracy is reduced to 'rule by majority' minorities aren't protected. - 19th century English philosopher John Stuart Mill 1806-73 called this 'tyranny of majority. Pluralist & popular democracy protects minorities.
  3. Democracy controls gov power- those who govern us are left to own devices= danger they'll claim increasing amounts of power & abuse position, democracy prevents this. Making govs accountable to the people by submitting themselves regularly for re-election & controlled by elected representatives people feel safe from corruption of power.
  4. Democracy encourages popular participation- tyranny's prevented if people can freely participate in politics, democracy prevents tyranny. In a free democracy people have opportunity to become informed & be directly involved in influecing decision making. Docile & uniformed population = vunrable to autocratic gov.
  5. Disperses power more widely- power becomes excessively concentrated in hands of small amount of people/organisations=power is denied to a wider range of population. E.g Burma, Syria, China -where power lies in hands of small elite & small Middle Eastern states or Sutanate of Brunei- hands of those economically powerful. Small ruling groups claim to be democratic since they rule on behalf of the people (dubious claim). Power dispersed widely amound people & non governemntal organisations in civil society=well served democracy.
Citizenship and Political Participation
1. Citizenship definition: Idea that members of the political community have certain rights with respect to political insitutions. Implies that an individual has the right to live within a particular state and thus enjoy all its rights/benefits. Implies a certain level of obligation, to obey law, to give military service in some circumstanes, to pay taxes and arguably to vote and to engage in some kinds of service to the community.
  1. Rights: To be a resident in the state, to vote in free elections, to stand for public office, to be treated equally under law, to be given a fair trial if accused of crime, to enjoy the modern concept of civil liberties e.g freedom of expression, association, movement, religion & thought.
  2. Duties: Obey laws, accept legitimacy of properly consituted gov, pay taxes, possibly join the armed forces if need for conscription (compulsory draft).
  3. Active citizenship: Idea developed in Labour party cicles 1990s. Idea that its the duty of all citzens to be politically active, not just a right. Citizens should engage in activity (local, regional, or national) which has some impact on community. Involves membership of political parties, pressure groups or voluntary organisations e.g Neighbourhood Watch, Church charities, environmental campaigners & activists.
  4. Big Society: Philosophy development by David Cameron & other conservative Party advisors. Similar to Labours idea of active citizenship. Suggests many functions of the state, in local gov should be replaced by local activism. E.g of movement= creation of 'free schools' to be run by local community groups, voluntary housing associations to produce subsided housing for rent, citizens action groups to combat crime, provide employment opportunities for young & to engage in environmental projects. Seen as new form of political participation.
2. Political participation definition: Opportunities for & tendencies of the people to become involved in political process. Minimum level= involves voting, but may involve active work in political parties/pressure groups. Highest level=implies standing for public office.
  1. Forms of political participation: being informed about issues, contributing to online forums/petitions, voting in elections, joining pressure groups, taking part in e-petitions, joining political parties, being active in a party/pressure group, standing for political office.
  2. Evidence of lower levels of active participation: Turnout at elections falling- general election participation shows decline despite small recovery in 2010 participation remains below high levels before 1997 & turnout in local & regional elections remains low. Party membership is declining- collapse of membership in British Conservative Party where traditionally participation has been high. Research suggests that in general people identify less closely with political parties than they used to (partisan dealignment).
    1. Much of electorate has turned away from traditional party involvement & from voting, but pressure group activity has never been higher. Rather than relying on parties to represent their concerns, many people take direct action themselves. Pressure group membership is growing, there are regular large demonstrations of public opinion on streets e.g anti university tuition fees campaign 2010-11 & Occupy London movement which got height in 2012 in its campaign against 'excesses' of capitalism. Highly successful internet campaigns on political issues e.g internet organisation 38 Degrees (slogan: People, Power, Politics) claimed by Feb 2012 to have organised 4.6 million political actions by its followers. 38 Degrees organises petitions, mass letter writing, demonstartions & parliamentary lobbying.
  3. Ways political participation can increase: Voting made compulsory- e.g Australia, force citizens to be aware of political issues, & gives 'ownership' of outcome of elections, critics says its an infringement of civil liberties but countered by option to vote for none of the candidates/ 'dont know'/'refusal to vote'. Reducing voting age from 18 to 16- proposed by Scottish Gov for Scottish independence, might 'politicise' young people at earlier age, critics say 16/17s not experienced enough to vote & teenagers wont visit polls, but 16s can pay taxes so should have opportunitiy to choose gov, 2005 debate Stephen Williams MP said 16s in Hamburg were twice as likely to vote. Make voting easier- internet/text voting or extending voting period from 1 to several days & place ballot stations in more accessible places e.g supermarkets, probelmswith security in electronic voting systems & little evidence that extending voting period will help...
    1. ...Citizenship lessons- recent innovation so its too early to judge results, early signs arent encouraging. Disillusionment with party politics might be combated if electoral sysytem reformed, making moree votes count & offering more choice to voters, regional list system used in European elections could empower supporters of smaller parties but 2011 referendum rejection of AV has put cause of electoral reform back. Internet provides opportunity to involve people in politics, spread of political forumns, blogs, twitter & other sites can generate an interest in political issues, gov can invite people to to take part in internet polls or referendums. More extensive use of referendums can stimulate more interest. More elected mayors (May 2012 referendums, most cities rejected such introduction). David Camerons Big Society plans are designed to encourage & help people become more involved in political activity at local level.
3. E-democracy/ digital democracy defintion: Various methods by which political opinion & demands are expressed through use of internet. Involve use of e-petions, forums, networks or blogs.
  1. Official Gov site: enables citizens to view issues & sign petitions. If a petition reaches 100,000 signatures on the site, the HofC Backbench MPs Business Committee (which has right to schedule parliamentary debate on the issue) will consider the issue for further action.
  2. 38 Degrees: voluntary site that encourages people to sign up to campaigns & write to decision makers inc ministers & MPs.
  3. Other campaign groups organsie e-petitions to demonstrate public support for their views - their influence difficult to quantify but little doubt they can change 'political climate' over time.
  4. Online forums, blogs & networks: where interested people are invitedto contribute columns, blogs & other networks surrounding particular issues. Difficult to asses political influence but can create 'political climate' over issues & place issues onpolitical agenda. Replacing parties/pressure groups. E.gs: Conservative Home, Liberal Democrat Voice, Labour List, Total Politics (general), Guido Fawkes ( generally radical), Iain Dales Diary (normally right of centre).
Direct Democracy
1. Definition: Political system or circumstances where the people themselves make key political decisions. Flourished briefly e.g Ancient Athens.
2. Direct democracy involves any form of direct consultation that gov makes with the people e.g coalition gov 2010 invited public participation to decide how public expenditure might be reduced & many local authorities regularly consult members of community on how to allocate expenditure among services & small parishes in rural areas hold public meetings to discuss/decide upon small local issues e.g provision of street lights, parking restrictions, planning concerns. After 2007 Downing street developed system of e-petitions where prime ministers office accepts & responds to email campaigns on issues that attract significant support e.g e-petition on road pricing. HofC also does this. Britian is becoming an consultative democracy (limited kind of direct system).
3. Direct democracy suggests citizens themselves make cricial decisions this is done via referendums. Referendum: Popular vote where the people are asked to determine an important political/consitutional issue directly.
  1. In some countries result of referedum is binding on gov, in others is not e.g in Uk result is not binding on parliament since Parliament remains soverign but unthinkable UK parliament would defy expressed referendum result. Referendums have yes or no answer so results not indecisive. Normally only 1 question posed but in 1997 referendum to decide if Scotland should have devolved gov had 2 questions- (1)if scots wanted own Parliament & 2if parliament should have tax-varying powers, linked questions since if scots rejected devolution question 2 wouldn't be relevant.
  2. Its Parl & Gov that determine if a referendum should be held & the question. When a referendums called for by the people its an initiative. In some states of USA theres provision for initiatives. California, Colorado, Florida & Michigan use such initiatives. Minimum number of genuine signatures required to create initiative, after which the question put on ballot paper.
    1. California, rules apply to qualify for initiative: Amendment to consitution- 8% of number of votes cast in previous election for state governor, 2010 number was approx 694,000. New legislative proposal: 5% of votes cast in previous election for state govenor. 2010 number was approx 433,000.
    2. Britain is edging towards using initiatives. E-petitions are a kind of initiative, they can only trigger parl/public debate but in future could be used to change the law (occurs in some US states).
  3. Referendum held in Northern Ireland 1973 to decide whether province should remain in UK or be united with Republic of Ireland. Most of Catholic community boycotted referendum so result became irrelevant. Although 1979 referdum of devolution in Scotland produced yes vote there was requirement that at least 40% of total Scottish electorate (not just those who voted) had to approve. This was not achieved so proposal was rejected. From, 1997 onwards referendums have become more common & significant.
  4. Why are referendums held? Concerned with important constitutional changes, they are about proposed changes to system of gov. In past constitutional changes haven't been subjected to popular approval but electorate is now considered to be better informed so insists on being consulted. Submitting constitutional changes to referendum has the effect of entrenching changes, meaning that future govs & parl cant reverse changes unless they again consult the people; the changes will thus become permanent.
    1. Why its nessesary to secure consent of the people:1975 vote on European Community membership(Labour gov split on issue on whether to remain, Prime minister Harold Wilson ordered referendum, yes vote ensured govs survival), 1979 votes on Scottish & Welsh devolution (both failed as Labour gov wasnt enthusiastic, force to put issue to vote by Liberal party, lacked parl majority & relied on support of small group of Liberal MPs to survive), 1998 vote to approve elected London mayor (change goverance of capital city so consent vital, implied tax increase), 1998 referedum in Northern Ireland on Good Friday Agreement (30 years of inter-community conflict, agreement promised permanent peace, required decisive yes vote , yes vote of 70%+ was enough), 2004 referendum in North East (test run for future referendums in english regions e.g North West, rejection of proposal led gov abandoning policy of setting up more assemblies in english regions, no vote stopped them from making unpopular policy)..
      1. ...,various referendums in localities (local communities having elected mayors already established for London, proposed for other parts of country, 2001-12 42 votes held only 13 positive, considered unexceptable central gov imposing elected mayors on communitites, local system of gov determined by local decisions), congestion charge votes in Edinburgh & Manchester ( hard for local gov as support for each side- environmentalists wanted congestion charge introduced, motor lobbying against, referendum convenient, congestion considered tax =vote on tax issue), referendum on adoption of AV for UK general elections May 2011 (compromise- conservatives agreed to consider electoral reform in coalition agreement with Lib Dems, kind of referendum was manifesto pledge of 3 parties, Lib Dems supported radical systems of proportional representation, conservatives opposed any reform.
  5. For referendums: most direct form of democracy, people more likely to repect /conform decisions they have made themselves they represnt true gov by consent, prevent govs making unpopular decisions, resolve issues that cause special problems for gov & parties, entrench consitutional change.
    1. Against referendums: undermine respect for representative insitutions, issues may be too complex for people to understand e.g European Union treaties, may produce emotional rather than rational response, wealthy groups/tabloid press may influence result unjustifiably, people use referendums as verdict on general popularity of gov rather than on issue in question, represent 'tyranny of majority' minorities may suffer, low turnouts can make decisions dubious.
Representative democracy
1. Definition: Political system where most decisions are made by elected representatives rather than people themselves. Implies people are represented by individuals & associations who communicate their demands/interests to decision makers.
2. Growth of representative democracy: 1688 (Glorious Revolution, King James II replaced by joint monarchy Williaam III & wife Mary, Bill of Rights agreed between new monarchy & Parl- transferred sovereignty to Parl declared all laws required sanction of Parl, Commons & Lords lacked democratic legitimacy still), 1832 ( Great Reform Act introduced fairer regular sysytem for election of MPs & widened franchise to inc alproperty owning midddle classes, made HofC legitimate), 1830s-1900 (party system developed, Conservative Party evolved under Robert Peel 1788-1850 in 1830s, Liberals under William Gladstone 1809-98 in 1870s & Labour founded in 1900, voting based on party affiliation of candidate rather than personal qualities/philosphy, party representation evolved, 1884 (Third Reform Act voting rights to most male population, HofC claiming more legitimacy & gained superiority over HofL...
  1. ...1928 (universal adult sufferage established, all adults men & men over 21 granted franchise, Britian now true liberal democracy, 1945 (1st truly modern election manifesto appeared published by Labour Parywhich was duly elected with clear programme of reform approved by electorate, exisitance of detailed manifesto setting out partys policies implied new gov had mandate to carry out policies contained in manifesto, introduced representative concept of mandate & manifesto, since 1945 manifestos become more detailed & mandate of electorate become clearer), 2010 (first coalition gov since 1945 ushered new kind of representation, such gov has noclear mandate but developed policed that represent consensus support.
3. Burkean representation: expounded by Whig MP & writer Edmund Burke (seen as conservative) at end of 18th centruy. Burke argued an elected representative should use his judgement in best interests of constituents & not be expected to merely. follow instructions of those whove elected him
4. Representation definition: people elect/ appoint representatives to make decisions on their behalf rather than making decisions themselves. Social level=implies that political institutions should have membership thats a social cross section of society in general.
5. Parliamentary representation: combines Burkes idea that representatives should be independent minded with development of united political parties in 19th centry- representatives were expected to strike balance between own judgement, stated policies of their party & interests of parliamenty constituents. Middle part of 19th century= 'golden age of British MP' since representatives in that period retained their independence within party structure & were able to retain influence over gov policy. Still times where party whips called off & MPs allowed to vote free of descipline ('free votes') when this occurs MPs may revert to Burkean principle (use own judgement) or will consult constituents on issue. Parliamenty votes on hunting with dogs, abortion laws & public smoking bans are examples.
6. Party delegation: evolved during 20th century. Parties became increasingly disciplined & monolithic. MPs subjected to ever greater control by party leadership. Parliamentary whips because agents of this discipline so age of independent MP had ended with few exceptions MPs toe party line. MPs become delegates of their party. Discipline can be justifed on grounds that voters typically base decision on merits of each partys election manifesto not personal qualities of candidates. MP who is elected has moral duty to support partys manifesto commitments as thats what consituents vote for. MPs who wish to defy partys line on issues are expected to consult local party members/constituents before doing so. Indicators since 2010 that MPs are becoming willing to defy party whips (disagreements within coalition).
7. Representative democracy in UK is described as parliamentary democracy since parl dominates political system & representation occurs traditionally through parl.
  1. 1)Parl is source of all political authority: not possible to excercise power without sanction of parl, even prime minister (who enjoys arbitrary prerogative powers inherited from monarchy) cant act without support of parl.
    1. 2)Gov of UK has to be drawn from Parl: members must be members of HofC or HofL, ensuring members of gov can be made directly accountable to Parl.
      1. 3)Gov makes itself constantly accountable to parl & submits all proposals to parl for approval (foreign treaties& actions by armed forces & intelligence or security services may be excepted. Ministers must report regularly to parl on progress of policies & results of governmental actions.
        4) Citizens are represented by members of parl (MPs): their views should be taken into account & grievances if possibly justified should be taken up by MPs for possible redress. Interests of every constituency in UK are represented by an MP in HofC.
        5) Parl is normally guardian of govs electoral mandate: governing party has mandate to put its proposals into action based on previous election manifesto (doctrine of mandate & manifesto). Parl has task of ensuring mandate isnt abused & if gov seeks to step beyond mandate it reserves right to veto such action. HofL has become especially active in this role. When no party wins a clear majority (2010) doctrine of mandate is compromised. Role of parl then ceases to be guardian of mandate & becomes supervisor of coalition politics ensuring gov holds to original coalition agreement.
        6) Parl is expected to represent national interest as a whole: may even involve defeat of gov on a vote (rare). Parl stands at centre of national politics in Britian. Parl that gives gov legitimacy in Britian (along with elections).
8. Ways people feel represented
  1. Each MP represents a constituency, this is true of Members of Scottish Parl, Welsh & Northern Ireland Assemblies & every local councillor. Represent interests of constituency as a whole & constituents as individuals. May conflict wih partys policy but many occasions representatives are able to protect their constituencies & to take up their grievancees with members of gov & public bodies. Part of democratic system each individual feels theres elected representative who will listen to their problems/injustices & try resolve them.
  2. Both houses of parl expected to act as representative cross section of society as a whole. When debates & committee hearings take place in either house, MPs & peers express what they belive are views/interests of sections of community. Neither house can claim to be truley socially representative of nations since its far from this- women & minority ethnic groups are under represented, while university educated over represented (3x as many MPs university educated compared to rest of population). Various occupational sections of community are represented in Parl especially HofL (peers come from many backgrounds & represent main professions (law, medicine, teaching), trade unions, pressure groups, industries & leisure groups. within constrictions of party dicipline interests of these & other groups are represented to limited amount. Manual workers under represented in commons while bias towards professional backgrounds amoung MPs.
  3. Parties in UK claim to represent whole nation. Days when onservative party represented middle class & Labour working class are gone. Representation based on party allegiance rather than social class this is excercised through principle of mandate & manifesto, each partys manifesto claims to represent national interest.
  4. Faith in political parties has declined people feel more represented by pressure groups. Felt parties cant represnt all interests of all people at same time. Pressure groups precisely & accurately. By pursuing interests of particular section of society or promoting particular cause pressure groups are seen as more effective ways for demands/ views of electorate today.
  5. Media especially newspapers represent general public. newspaper editors claim they represent views of readership. Political leaders pay more attention to press than in the past. Whether newsapers have influence or not many belive they do so views they express are important. 2011 Leveson Inquiry set up to examine relationship between politics & media.
Direct and representative democracy compared
1. Advantages of direct democracy: Purest form of democracy. Avoids decisions made by represenatives purely in their own interests. People are becoming increasingly well informed & educated so can make their own judgements. Where theres disillusionment with represetative institutions people prefer to make decisions for themselves. Decisios made directly by the people carry more authority now.
2. Advantages of representative democracy: Elected representatives may use superior knowlege/judgement this avoids hasty/emotional decisions made directly by the people. Representatives & parties are able to mediate between interests of diffrent sections of society direct democracy means majority always prevails making minoritites vunerable. Issues that involve such conflicting interests require complex solutions direct democracy tends to reduce all questions to over simplified answers. Demands made directly by the people are often incoherent & illogical representative democracy can mke better sense of these demands and convert them into practical programmes.
3. Is Britian a liberal democracy?
  1. Criteria: Gov is accountable to the people to ensure it is attempting to act in their general interests. There are free & fair elections. There is peaceful, orderly transfer of power from 1 gov to next. Losing parties accept democratic legitimacy of winning parties. Info is freely available to citizenry. Rights & liberties of citizens tken into account & protected. Powers of gov are controllled & limited either by law or elected insitutions/both. Variety of belifs, opinions, cultures & lifestyles is tolerated provided they dont threaten security & peace of state.
4. Liberal demoracy definition: type of democracy where theres an emphasis on protection of invidual rights & liberties, where rule of law is strickly adhered to, & where gov is limited by enforceable constitutional laws.
5. Parliamentary democracy definition: type of representative democracy where an elected parl is the source of all political authority & where gov is drawn largely from parl.
Democratic deficit and Democratic renewal
1. Democratic deficit definition: describe fear that democracy is being undermined/weakened in number of ways.
2. Democratic renewal defintion: desribes measures designed to deal with democratic deficit.
3. 1) problem of falling political participation. Resolved by raising voting turnout & engaging younger people with the democratic process. 2) Persistence of undemocratic insitutions within system of gov. Resolved by constitutional & parlimentary reform. 3) Increased centralisation of power thats insufficiently accountable within gov. Resolved by devolution or other consitutional reforms.

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	Created by tilly west over 6 years ago