2667340
Description
Mind Map by Livvi Maglio, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by Livvi Maglio
over 9 years ago
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Research Methods
- Sampling
- Opportunity Sampling-
Taking a sample from people
who are available at the time
the study is carried out. +
FAST AND EASY - MAY BE ONE
AGE RANGE, NOT
GENERALISABLE
- Random Sampling- Everyone gets an equal
chance of being chosen to take part in
experiment e.g.put all of the names of students
in a hat and draw out a name + EQUAL CHANCE/
FAIR - NOT GENERALISABLE, INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
- Self- Selected Sampling (volunteer) - this consists of
participants becoming part of a study because they
volunteered to do so , from an advert e.g. milgrams
study + MORE SUITABLE PARTICIPANTS - TAKES LONGER
- Opportunity Sampling-
Taking a sample from people
who are available at the time
the study is carried out. +
FAST AND EASY - MAY BE ONE
AGE RANGE, NOT
GENERALISABLE
- Experimental Design
- Independent Measures design
(Independent groups)- Using different
participants for each condition in the
investigation + CAN BE QUICKER TO
CARRY OUT, LESS LIKELY TO RESPOND
TO DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS, ONLY
DESIGN THAT ALLOWS COMPARISON -
TWICE AS MANY P'S NEEDED, P
VARIABLES MAY CONFOUND RESULTS,
DIFFICULT TO KEEP VARIABLES
CONSTANT
- Repeated Measures design - The same
participant taking part in each condition of the
IV. + PARTICIPANT VARIABLES WILL NOT
CONFOUND RESULTS, FEWER P'S ARE NEEDED -
RESULTS MAY BE INFLUENCED BY ORDER
EFFECTS E.G. BOREDOM, P'S ARE LIKELY TO
GUESS THE AIM OF THE STUDY AND RESPOND
TO DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS.
- Matched pairs design - P's are matched on a
factor important to the experiment e.g if it is a
memory experiment, P's will be tested on
memory before hand and grouped with other
people with similar results.+ REDUCES THE
EFFECT OF SOME KEY VARIABLES, P'S ARE LESS
LIKELY TO GUESS THE AIM OF THE STUDY -
DIFFICULT TO ESTABLISH MATCHES, REQUIRES
TWICE AS MAY P'S
- Independent Measures design
(Independent groups)- Using different
participants for each condition in the
investigation + CAN BE QUICKER TO
CARRY OUT, LESS LIKELY TO RESPOND
TO DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS, ONLY
DESIGN THAT ALLOWS COMPARISON -
TWICE AS MANY P'S NEEDED, P
VARIABLES MAY CONFOUND RESULTS,
DIFFICULT TO KEEP VARIABLES
CONSTANT
- Controlling extraneous variables
- Standardisation - Keeping everything the
same for participants. This can be achieved by
adopting a standardised procedure for all
participants - instructions that are exactly the
same for everyone.
- Counterbalancing - May have to use this
method if using repeated measures design
but wish to reduce order effects e.g.
boredom or practice. Half of the p's do
condition A then B and the other half do
condition B then A. The idea is that if the
people get better on the second test this
order effect will be balanced out, 50% of
p's do better in condition A and 50% do
better in condition B
- Randomisation- Participants
are allocated to one situation or
the other randomly
(determined by chance)
- Participant reactivity- This is
something that can affect the results
of the experiment, how p's respond to
the experimental situation.DEMAND
CHARACTERISTICS. EXPERIMENTER
EFFECT (INVESTIGATOR EFFECTS).
prevent happening by single and
double blind control.
- Standardisation - Keeping everything the
same for participants. This can be achieved by
adopting a standardised procedure for all
participants - instructions that are exactly the
same for everyone.
- Ethics
- Consent
- Protection from distress
- deception
- debriefing
- withdrawal from investigation
- Confidentiality
- observational research -consent
- Giving Advice
- Colleagues
- Consent
- Pilot Study - a trial run of
research with a small number
of p's to allow researchers to
make necessary adjustments
and to save wasting valuable
resources
- Types of Data
- Quantitative Data- Focus on numbers and
frequencies rather than meaning and experience.
It provides information that is easy to analyse
statistically and fairly reliable Associated with the
scientific approach, and are criticised for not
providing an in depth description.
- Qualitative Data- this
is concerned with
describing meaning
rather than statistics.
they lose reiiability
however gain validity.
Provide an in depth
and rich description.
- Quantitative Data- Focus on numbers and
frequencies rather than meaning and experience.
It provides information that is easy to analyse
statistically and fairly reliable Associated with the
scientific approach, and are criticised for not
providing an in depth description.
- Reliability - how
consistently it measures
- Internal reliability - how
consistent a method
measures within itself. if
measures of
measurements were not
standardised they would
distort final results.
- Internal reliability
could be checked for
test items by the split
half method -
correlating the results
with the other half and
gaining a positive
correlation.
- Internal reliability
could be checked for
test items by the split
half method -
correlating the results
with the other half and
gaining a positive
correlation.
- External reliability - how
consistent something
measure over time when
repeated. Should have the
same results when
repeated with the same
people under the same
conditions.
- External reliability could
be checked for test items
by the test/re-test
method. correlating the
results of the test
conducted on one
occasion with the results
of the test conducted on
a later occasion - gaining
a high positive
correlation.
- External reliability could
be checked for test items
by the test/re-test
method. correlating the
results of the test
conducted on one
occasion with the results
of the test conducted on
a later occasion - gaining
a high positive
correlation.
- Inter-rater reliability -
two raters provide
consistent or similar
responses. The ratings
for each observer are
correlated to check for
agreement. It is a
method of assessing
the reliability of a set of
measurements or
ratings such as in an
observation.
- Internal reliability - how
consistent a method
measures within itself. if
measures of
measurements were not
standardised they would
distort final results.
- Validity - does
it measure what
its supposed to
measure.
- Face validity - examining whether a
measure looks like it measures what
its supposed to measure.
- Concurrent validity - comparing
a new method or test with an
already well-established one that
claims to measure the same
variables.
- Predictive validity- whether a model allows us
to make predictions.
- Internal
validity- what
happens in a
study - whether
the independent
variable really
had an effect on
the dependent
variable.
- External validity - whether the
findings of the study can be
generalised beyond the settings of
the study. e.g. populations, location,
measures used, times.
- Face validity - examining whether a
measure looks like it measures what
its supposed to measure.
- Observational studies
- Controlled observation
- this involves the
recording of
spontaneously occuring
behaviour, but under
conditions controlled by
researcher. +CONTROL
OF CONFOUNDING
VARIABLES, LEADS TO
INCREASED
REPLICABILITY AND
RELIABILITY. -
OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR
MAY BE ARTIFICIAL DUE
TO THE SETTING AND
P'SKNOWING THEY ARE
OBSERVED, DEMAND
CHARACTERISTICS,
OBSERVER BIAS.
- Naturalistic observation - this
involves the recording of
spontaneously occuring behaviour in
the participants own behaviour. +
BEHAVIOUR PRODUCED IS MORE
NATURAL AND VALID, APPROPRIATE
IN SITUATIONS WHERE THE
EXPERIMENT MAY BE
INAPPROPRIATE. - HIGHER RISK OF
OBSERVER BIAS , DIFFICULT TO HIDE
OBSERVERS, REPLICATION IS
DIFFICULT, EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
ARE POORLY CONTROLLED,
OBSERVER BIAS.
- Participant observation - this is a technique used
when a researcher takes part in the study posing
as an 'ordinary person', usually concealing their
true identity and function from the real p's +
BEHAVIOUR IS LIKELY TO BE NATURALISTIC,
LIKELY TO PRODUCE VALID RESULTS, USEFUL
WHEN EXPERIMENTS WILL BE UNETHICAL,
RESEARCHER GAINS FIRST HAND EXPERIENCE. -
DATA RECORDING RELIES ON MEMORY WHICH
COULD BE DISTORTED OVER TIME, EMOTIONAL
INVOLVEMENT FROM RESEARCHER MAY CLOUD
OBJECTIVITY, PROBLEM WITH GENERALISABILITY.
- Behaviour sampling methods
- Time sampling - the
observer decides on a
time interval, such as
5 minutes every hour
and makes a note of
particular behaviours
during that time.
- Event sampling -
observer counts how
many times a specific
behaviour occurs.
better when less p's
and they dont know
they are being
observed.
- Time sampling - the
observer decides on a
time interval, such as
5 minutes every hour
and makes a note of
particular behaviours
during that time.
- Controlled observation
- this involves the
recording of
spontaneously occuring
behaviour, but under
conditions controlled by
researcher. +CONTROL
OF CONFOUNDING
VARIABLES, LEADS TO
INCREASED
REPLICABILITY AND
RELIABILITY. -
OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR
MAY BE ARTIFICIAL DUE
TO THE SETTING AND
P'SKNOWING THEY ARE
OBSERVED, DEMAND
CHARACTERISTICS,
OBSERVER BIAS.
- Content analysis
- 2 parts to it - first is an interpretative
aspect which involves deciding which
categories are meaningful in a study in
terms of what you are researching.the
second is a mechanical aspect which
involves organising and subdividing the
material, counting how frequently words,
images, idea, actions etc occur.
- 2 parts to it - first is an interpretative
aspect which involves deciding which
categories are meaningful in a study in
terms of what you are researching.the
second is a mechanical aspect which
involves organising and subdividing the
material, counting how frequently words,
images, idea, actions etc occur.
- Presenting qualitative data
- Self report methods- allows the participant to
provide information on him/herself usually in
the form of an interview of questionnaire. for
example, p's may be asked to keep a sleep diary
over the course of a week. + ALLOWS
RESEARCHER TO GATHER INFORMATION ABOUT
VARIABLES WHICH MAY BE DIFFICULT TO
INVESTIGATE IN OTHER WAYS BECAUSE THEY
ARE VERY PERSONAL OR OCCUR RARELY.,
ENABLES RESEARCHER TO GATHER BOTH
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA
DEPENDING UPON THE TYPE OF QUESTIONS
ASKED. - PARTICIPANTS MAY NOR RESPOND IN
A TRUTHFUL. WAY DUE TO LACK OF
UNDERSTANDING/ UNPREPARED TO TELL THE
TRUTH/ MAY NOT KNOW ANSWER TO
QUESTION, RISK OF RESEARCHER BIAS.
- interviews - face to face or conducted electronically.
range from structured to unstructured. A structured
interview involves researcher asking p's a pre-
determined set of questions, semi-structured is when p's
are asked pre- determined questions but researcher can
add spontaneous questions or allows p''s to elaborate.
unstructured interviews involve researcher supporting p
as they talk about what they need to, used to help client
rather than gather info. + ALLOWS RESEARCHER TO
CLARIFY QUESTIONS IF THEY ARE AMBIGUOUS , SEMI
STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS ALLOW THE RESEARCHER TO
DIGRESS OR PROBE FURTHER IF THE NEED ARISES
BECAUSE OF THE LESS STRUCTURED FORMAT, ALLOWS
RELATIONSHIP TO BUILD, STUCTURED INTERVIEWS ARE
EASY TO STANDARDISE . - RISK OF RESEARCHER BIAS, P
MAY BE RELUCTANT TO OPEN UP AND TELL TRUTH,
TAKES LONGER TO GATHER INFO.
- questionnaires - paper or electronically, open
ended questions allow p's to respond freely and
in depth. Closed questions restrict responses p's
can give.fixed questions - likert scales involves
indicating how much they agree using a rating.
Semantic differential type scales include p's
placing a mark on a scale - numbered or bipolar.
+ TAKES LESS TIME TO GATHER DATA, P'S MAY
BE MORE HONESTAS A ANSWERING
ANONYMOUSLY, RESEARCHER DOES NOT NEED
TO BE PRESENT. - AS RESEARCHER IS NOT
PRESENT, P'S CANNOT QUESTION ANY QUERIES,
RISK OF POSITION RESPONSE BIAS , FIXED
QUESTIONS INCLUDE A FALSE IMPRESSION OF
PRECISION.
- Validity and self reports.
- interviews - face to face or conducted electronically.
range from structured to unstructured. A structured
interview involves researcher asking p's a pre-
determined set of questions, semi-structured is when p's
are asked pre- determined questions but researcher can
add spontaneous questions or allows p''s to elaborate.
unstructured interviews involve researcher supporting p
as they talk about what they need to, used to help client
rather than gather info. + ALLOWS RESEARCHER TO
CLARIFY QUESTIONS IF THEY ARE AMBIGUOUS , SEMI
STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS ALLOW THE RESEARCHER TO
DIGRESS OR PROBE FURTHER IF THE NEED ARISES
BECAUSE OF THE LESS STRUCTURED FORMAT, ALLOWS
RELATIONSHIP TO BUILD, STUCTURED INTERVIEWS ARE
EASY TO STANDARDISE . - RISK OF RESEARCHER BIAS, P
MAY BE RELUCTANT TO OPEN UP AND TELL TRUTH,
TAKES LONGER TO GATHER INFO.
- Correlation
- Advantages - correlational analysis
can demonstrate an
association/relationship between
variables and how strong that
relationship is. It can also
demonstrate the type of
relationship ie positive or negative.
It is a technique of statistical
analysis which can be applied to
data obtained by other means.
- Disadvantages - No matter how strong the
correlation is, it does not suggest causation., Such
analysis can only measure straight line
relationships. The technique is subject to any
problems associated with the method by which
data is obtained.
- Advantages - correlational analysis
can demonstrate an
association/relationship between
variables and how strong that
relationship is. It can also
demonstrate the type of
relationship ie positive or negative.
It is a technique of statistical
analysis which can be applied to
data obtained by other means.
- Case Studies
- Alternative methods
- Alternative methods
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