Human Anatomy

Skeletal System
1. Types of Bones
  1. Short
    2. Ex. Clavicle, Carpals, Tarsals
  2. Long
    2. Anatomy of a Long Bone
      1. Epiphysis
        Cartilage (Articular/Articulating Cartilage) - Located at both ends of the long bone, allows smooth movement within joints
        Cancellous Bone (Begins as Fibrous Membranes) - The "Spongy Bone" is filled with marrow in its small cavity-like spaces
        Osteoblasts release osteoid into membrane which forms a sponge-like bundle of fibres
        Epiphyseal Plates "Growth Plates" - Located at various locations at the epiphyses of long bones
        Trabeculae -Consists of bony fibres arranged in a strut-like system, density varies
        Diaphysis
        Medullary Cavity - Located inside bone shaft (cortex), filled with red marrow "Hematopoisis" (blood cell formation) and yellow marrow "Adipose" (fat cells and connective tissue)
        Compact Bone (Begins As Cartilage) - The dense part of the bone responsible for its structural intergrity
        Osteoblasts discharge osteoid into the deposited minerals to form the hardened material known as bone
        Cortex - Exterior layer of bone is dense/smooth and varying in thickness
        Periosteum - Outer connective tissue, connect bone-to-bone/bone-to-muscle (Direct Connection)
    3. Ex. Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Tibia, Fibula, Femur,
  3. Flat
    2. Commonly Found In The Skull
    3. Ex. Frontal Bone, Parietal Bone, Occipital Bone, Sternum, Ribs
  4. Irregular
    2. DIAGRAM
      1. On theses bones are...
        Bone Landmarks
        Ridges, Bumps, Grooves, Depressions, and Prominences found on bones
        These Landmarks have Serveral Functions
        Passage of Blood Vessels & Nerves
        Attachments
        Tendons
        Insertion
        Origin
        Proximal
        Distal
        - The Articular System - (Joints Between Bones)
        Fibrous Joints Allow For No Movement
        Cartilaginous Joints
        Synovial Joints Allow For A Lot of Movement
        Ball-and-Socket Joint
        Hip
        Gliding Joint
        Foot
        Hinge Joint
        Elbow
        Pivot
        Neck
        Saddle
        Thumb
        Ellipsoid
        Wrist
        Anatomy of a Synovial Joint
        DIAGRAM
        Articular Cartilage is also found in the Synovial Joint
        Descriptions of Parts in Diagram
        Ex. Glenoid Fossa, Coracoid Process, Greater Trochanter, Iliac Crest, Linea Aspera, etc.
    3. Commonly Found In The Vertebral Column
    4. Ex. Scapula, Vertebrae, Sacrum, Coccyx, Pelvis, Mandible,
  5. Sesamoid
    1. Ex. Patella, Sesamoid Bone (Distal End of Metacarpal 1)
  6. There 206 Bones in the Body!
    1. Bones are made through...
      1. Ossification
        Bone Remodelling Cycle
        DIAGRAM
        1. Resorption - Osteoclasts break down minerals, bone fragments, and material creating a cavity
        2. Reversal - The surface of the bone is prepared for new Osteoblasts to begin ossification
        3. Formation - Osteoblasts release osteoid to replace resorbed bone with new bone
        4. Resting - A prolonged resting period follows until a new remodeling cycle begins
        Osteoblasts: Bone-forming Cells
        Osteoblasts deposit osteoid which turns into bone when exposed to inorganic salts
        Osteoid: Gelatin-like Substance (Stem Cell)
        Osteoclasts: Bone-deconstructing Cells
2. The Role of a Skeleton
  1. Structural Support
  2. Protection
  3. Growth Center for Cells
  4. Reservoir for Minerals
    1. Calcium (Ca)
      3. Calcium binds to troponin
        Allows the actin and myosin proteins to interact
        This eventually leads to muscle contraction
    2. Phosphorus
  5. Movement
    1. Movement at Joints
      1. Flexion/Extension
        Hip Flexion & Knee Extension
        Elbow Flexion through the Sagittal Plane and Around the Horizontal Axis
      2. uction
      3. Supination/Pronation
      8. Protraction/Retraction
      11. Circumduction
    2. Movement Through Planes and Axis
      1. Anatomical Planes
        Transverse Plane
        Sagittal Plane
        Frontal Plane
        Anatomical Axis
        Antero-posterior Axis
        Longitudinal Axis
        Horizontal Axis
        - Kicking a Ball - Moving through the Sagittal Plane and around the Horizontal Axis
        Signals to take action are sent from the leg to the Brain/Spinal Cord
    3. Agonist VS. Antagonist
      1. - Agonist - Responsible for movement of the body (Contracts/Shortens)
        - Antagonist - Counteracts Agonist (Shortens)
    4. Through contraction Muscles and Bones work together to cause...
3. Which is divided into...
  1. 1. The Axial Skeleton (80 Bones, Yellow)
      1. Which is made up of...
        Vertebral Column
        The spine is made up of 3 groups of Irregular Bones
        7 Cervical Vertebrae, 12 Thoracic Vertebrae, 5 Lumbar Vertebrae
        Rib Cage
        7 True Ribs, 3 False Ribs, 2 Floating Ribs
        Ribs are made up of long Flat Bones
        Skull
        The skull is made up of Flat and Irregular Bones
    2. The Appendicular Skeleton (126 Bones, Green)
      1. Which is made up of...
        Limbs
        Lower Body Limbs
        Thighs & Legs (8 Bones)
        Common Bones Types: Long & Sesamoid Bones (Patella)
        Feet & Ankles (52 Bones)
        Common Bone Types: Short Bones
        Upper Body Limbs
        Arms & Forearms (6 Bones)
        Common Bone Types: Long Bones
        Hands & Wrists (54 Bones)
        Common Bone Types: Short Bones
        Girdles
        Pectoral Girdle (4 Bones)
        2 Clavicles, 2 Scapulas
        Common Bone Types: Short & Irregular Bones
        All Upper Limbs attach to the Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)
        Pelvic Girdle (2 Bones)
        2 Hip Bones, 1 Sacrum
        Common Bone Types: Irregular Bones
        All Lower Limbs attach to the Pelvic Girdle (Hip Girdle)
Muscular System
1. Characteristics of Muscles
  1. Contractibility
  2. Conductivity
    1. Muscles Receive Impulses from...
      1. Neuromuscular Junction
        Contains...
        The signal causes the Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (ACh) to be released and received by the receptors on the Sarcolemma (surface of muscle fibre)
        The detected chemical results muscle contraction
        The Neuromusular Junction is where the Sliding Filament Theory occurs
        Sliding Filament Theory
        Calcium Ions are released into the sarcoplasm to be used for Sliding Filament Theory
        Fact: Muscles always pull, never push
        Sliding Filament Theory describes the overlapping of myosin and actin filaments to achieve contraction
        The process begins when a signal for action is sent to a muscle from the brain
        The Sarcolemma is where Neuromuscular Junction occurs...
        The Signal is processed and sent back to the muscle through nerves until it reaches the axions the point of Neuromuscular Junction
        Triggers Calcium influx
        Calcium bonds with Troponin
        The bond causes the Actin to change shape and the Tropomyosin to separate from the Actin leaving room for a Myosin Crossbridge
  3. Elasticity
  4. Extensibility
  5. Irritablity
  6. Striation
    1. Non-Striated Muscles
    2. Striated Muscles
2. 3 Types of Muscles
  1. Which Are Named For...
    1. Action/Function of the Muscle
      1. In reference to the "Movement at Joints" branch, muscles are named after movements such as "Flexion/Extension"
    2. Direction of the Fibres
      1. In reference to the "Anatomical Planes" branch, muscles are named after the direction in which their fibres run such as the Transversus Abdominus (Transverse Plane)
    3. Location of the Muscle
      1. The Anatomical Position gives us the locations at which the muslces are named
        For example the Tibialis Anterior and Tibialis Posterior were named after there location on the body based of the Anatomical Posistion
        The Anatomical Posistion
    4. Number of Heads/Divisions
      1. For example the Biceps Brachii has 2 Heads and the Triceps Brachii has 3 heads
    5. Shape of the Muscle
      1. For example the Deltoid (resembles greek letter Delta) or the Trapezius (resembles a Trapezoid)
    6. Muscle's Point of Attachment
      1. In reference to the "Bone Landmarks" branch, muscles are named after their point of attachment such the Sternocleidomastoid (Sternum + Clavicle + Mastoid Process)
  2. 1. A) Smooth Muscles
      1. Surrounds The Body's Internal Organs
        Esophagus
        Stomach
      2. Non-Striated Muscles
    2. B) Cardiac Muscles
      1. Found Only In The Heart
    3. C) Skeletal Muscles
      1. Striated Muscles
      2. Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles
        Starting at the Bone the Muscle Belly is attached through a Tendon
        The outermost layer of the muscles tissue is called the Epimysium.
        Under the Epimysium lies the Perimysium, surrounding bundles of large groups of muscle fibres.
        Those groups of muscle fibres are surrounded by the Endomysium
        Muscle Fibre
        Now on a cellular level the Sarcolemma is the muscle cell membrane
        Inside the Sarcolemma lies the Sarcoplasm which is the cells Cytoplasm
        Further inward we find repeating structural units containing Sarcomeres
        Sarcomere
        Bundles of stands called Myofibrils. They are made up of the protiens
        Myosin
        Contains Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and Inorganic Phosphate (PI)
        Myosin Crossbridge
        ADP and PI leave the Myosin causing it to contract and pull the Actin towards it (Contracting The Muscle)
        The ADP and PI combine to become Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
        This is the energy/fuel that drives the mechanism
        The ATP binds to the Myosin again and pulls it away from the Actin
        The ATP then converts back into ADP and PI and the process repeats itself.
        This is a diagram of the process of contraction as described above
        Actin
        Tropomyosin Bands
        Troponin Receptors
      3. Skeletal Muscle Contraction
        Types of Muscle Contraction
        C) Isometric (Static)
        Ex. Planks, Wall Sits, etc.
        B) Eccentric (Lengthening)
        Ex. Downward part of Bench Press
        A) Concentric (Shortening)
        Ex. Biceps Curl
        There are also...
        E) Isotonic (Same Weight)
        Ex. Squats
        D) Isokinetic (Same Speed)
        Ex. Stationary Bike
        These characteristics are essential during exercise... and to exercise muscle contraction is necessary
        Contact through the actions conducted during Sliding Filament Theory
        When muscles are contacted too much and over-stressed they transfer impact to bone
        Calcium is the trigger for muscle contraction
        Contraction is triggered in 2 ways
        Conscious Effort
        Reflexes
        There are 3 Types of Neurons in the Body
        Sensory Neurons detect/sense information from the outside world, such as light, sound, touch, and heat
        Motor Neurons send signals away from the Central Nervous System and elicit a response, for example movement of the arms or legs
        Interneurons form interconnections between other neurons in the Central Nervous System.
        Neurons transmit information to each other through a series of connections that form a circuit
        An example of that kind of circuit is the...
        The Reflex Arc
        It allows organisms to respond rapidly to inputs from sensory neurons
        The 5 Parts To The Reflex Arc
        2. The Sensory Nerve (Afferent) - Carries The Impulse to the Spinal Column of Brain
        3. The Intermediate Nerve Fibre (Adjuster/Interneuron) - Interprets signal and issues an appropriate response
        1. The Receptor - Receives the initial stimulus
        4. The Motor Nerve (Efferent) - Carries he response message from spinal cord to muscle/organ
        5. The Effector Organ Itself (Skeletal Muscle) - Carries out the response
        Muscle Spindles
        Stretch Reflex
        Sensory receptors within a muscle fibre the primarily detect changes in the length of the muscle
        Golgi Tendon Organs
        Tension Reflex
        Sensory receptors found at the end of muscle fibres that merge into the tendon itself and that detect changes in musical tension
      4. Can connect to bones Indirectly (through Tendons/Ligaments) or Directy (Membranes)
        Tendons and Ligaments
4. There are between 640 to 850 muscles in the Human Body
5. The Role of The Muscular System
  1. Movement
  2. Heat Production
  3. Support of Joints to Maintain a Position
  4. Support of Bones to Maintain a Position
Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary)
2. Automatic Nervous System (Involuntary)
  1. Smooth Muscles
  2. Cardiac Muscles
3. Neuromuscular System
4. Motor Units
  1. Characterizing Motor Units
    1. Small Units
      1. Stimulates small amounts of muscle fibres
      2. Meant for Fine Motor Movement such as moving the eye
    2. Motor Units consist of...
      1. The Motor Neuron
      2. The Axon Pathway
      3. The Specific Muscle Fibres it Stimulates
    3. Large Units
      1. Stimulates large amounts of muscle fibres
      2. Meant for Gross Motor Movement such as the Quadriceps of the Leg
        Single motor unit in the Quadriceps may stimulate 300 to 800 muscle fibres
    4. Force
      1. All motor units must be recruited at the same time
    5. All-or-none Principle
      1. When a motor unit is stimulated to contract, it will do so to its fullest potential
  2. - Muscle Twitch - A single nervous impulse and the resulting contraction
Injuries and Disease
1. The Body can experience many forms of stress/damage
2. Joint Related Problems
  1. - Sprains - Occur when ligaments are over-stretched
    1. Treat sprains with PIER Pressure, Ice Elevation, and Rest
    2. There are 3 Degrees of Sprains ranging in severity
  2. - Cartilage Damage - Tears made in the cartilage during sports and other vigorous activities
  3. Wear, Tear, & Aging
    1. Osteoarthritis
      1. Loss of cartilage at joints exposing bones for damage
      2. Symptoms Include...
        Joint Pain, Tenderness, Stiffness, and Locking of Joint
    2. - Bursitis - Inflammation of bursae
  4. Dislocations
    1. Displaced Ball and Socket Joints are...
      1. Ex. Humerus dislocatus from the Glenoid Fossa
    2. Bone is Displaced from its original location
  5. Separations
    1. Tears in the connective tissues of a joint
3. Bone Related Problems
  1. Fractures/Breaks
    1. - Compound Fractures - Breaks into separate pieces (often breaches skin)
      1. DIAGRAM
    2. - Comminuted Fractures - Broken ends of bone are shattered into many pieces
    3. - Simple Fractures - No Separation of bone into parts, but a break/crack is detecatable
  2. Aging
    1. - Osteoporosis - A disease characterized by low bone mass and bone deterioration
      1. Leads to fractures in Hip, Spine, and Wrist
      2. - Preventing Osteoporosis - *A balanced diet rich in calcium and vitamin D *Weight-bearing exercise *A healthy lifestyle (no smoking, drinking, etc.)
      3. Leads to fractures in Hip, Spine, and Wrist
  3. Shin Splints and Stress Fractures
    1. Stress fractures are tiny cracks in bone caused by over use/stress of muscles
    2. Shin Splints result of overuse without adequate time for recovery
      1. Shin Splints refer to pain of Medial/Lateral side of Tibia
4. Muscle & Tendon Related Problems
  1. Muscles
    1. Rotator Cuff Tears
      2. Muscles of The Rotator Cuff
        Supraspinatus
        Subscapularis
        Infraspinatus
        Teres Minor
      3. The 4 muscles are meant to slow motion to prevent shoulder dislocation after throwing so it is common for Rotator Cuff Tears to occur during the motion of throwing improperly
    2. Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)
      1. Result of microscopic tearing deep within the muscle fibres
        Use R.I.C.E (Rest, Ice, Compression, and Elevation) to help with soft-tissue injuries
      2. Lasts 5-7 Days
    3. Strains & Tears
      1. 2nd Degree -Require physiotherapy treatment once diagnosed by a doctor
      2. 3rd Degree - Require surgery and rehabilitation (6-12 months)
      3. 1st Degree - Slight swelling and bruising, pain felt on the end of full range of motion
  2. Tendons
    1. Tendonitis
      1. Inflammation of a tendon caused by irritation due to prolonged or abnormal use
        An example of this is...
        Tennis Elbow & Golfers Elbow
        Torn tendons on the Lateral and Medial sides of the Elbow
      2. Symptoms: Pain/tenderness on the tendon near/around the joint, stiffness/pain in the tendon (restricting movement), a strong pulling/sharp pain when moving a joint, and on occasion, mild swelling, numbness, or a tingling sensation at the joint
      3. Preventing: Resting, avoiding movement, protect area with splints, slings, or casts, apply ice, take oral medication, and take physical therapy
By: Brandon Arthur Bartlett Enarson
Mr. Tan - PSK4U1 08/05/2016

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