G4 - Sustainability

Urban

Cities are classified in order of area, population and rate of development. They're categorised differently so sustainable approaches are different per city type. Generally there has been rapid growth in LEDCs, whereas MEDCs have faced stable growth and even decline because of urban-rural migration and deprivation in the inner cities,Cities are facing rising problems:Crime/deprivation, traffic, homelessness, declining CBDs, increasing house prices, education, sewage/sanitation, unemployment/over employment, urban sprawl, poverty, water, health and energy.These issues are not evenly spread - Newport, Pill deprived, Langston affluent. Sao Paulo - shanty town deprived, wealthy city.LEDCs are facing these issues more severely than MEDCs due to a lack of historical, sustainable and governmental structure. Development has occurred on land that isn't suitable - boggy, risk of landslide. Conurbations.Why is sustainability difficult to achieve in urban areas?Large, dense populations = environmental problems as more waste, resources and transport infrastructure is needed.Waste managementBy generating less waste and changing our lifestyles it reduces the amount of impact we have on the environment. In 2008 each person in the UK contributed to 452kg of waste. This waste generally goes in landfill, which is unsustainable. But, waste management in the UK has become more sustainable, as landfill use is decreasing and recycling has increased. In 2004 33% of waste was recycled, in 2008 it was 45%. This is because of national and EU targets - wants 50% of household waste to be recycled.LandfillBuried rubbish which is cheap, but not sustainable.Releases CO2 and methane (greenhouse gases). In UK, landfill produces 33% of all methane emissions. New technologies has allowed gas to get captured and used for other uses - biofuel. Landfill pollutes groundwater - new landfills can be designed to avoid this problem. Will they in LEDCs? CompostingUses organic material which is biodegradable.If done individually it reduces cost for local authorities.Large-scale composting produces two useful products - biogas and nitrogen rich fertiliser.Sustainable because it decreases the amount going to landfill and biogas is a renewable source of energy.Has to be managed properly - material has to be sorted otherwise materials which can be left in which can pollute soil and become harmful to people eating crops.RecyclingWaste materials are made into new products or materials ADVANTAGES: Quicker and cheaper than making them from scratch. Requires less energy than making from scratch Reduces demand for raw materials = less environmental impact and reduces the amount of waste going in landfills. DISADVANTAGES: Sometimes relies on individuals - unless brought in by local authorities e.g. Newport City Councils recycling has made sure all residents are on board this scheme. Some councils may have better recycling programs than others - has to be a national effort. Also, LEDCs don't even have the waste collection services for landfill, let alone recycling. Initial start up costs are high, for example, Newport City Council needed to establish WasteSavers and the purchasing of new fleet, staff and recycle boxes. Energy recoveryWaste that can be composted, re-used or recycled is burnt to generate heat and electricity.+ Reduces demand for fossil fuels - not fully sustainable as it does produce CO2 and other emissions.SHEFFIELD MEDC- used to generate electricity for residents. Energy Recovery facility provides heat for 140 buildings in the city centre. Without this they would produce an extra 21000 tonnes of CO2 a year. Other local councils are looking into ERF like Leicestershire City Council to provide electricity for 42000 homes.Reduce and reuseAmount of waste produced can be reduced. Waste products can be reused e.g. plastic bottles.LEDCEgypt - Zabbelen collect rubbish and sell it or re-use it. Make money from feeding the organic waste to their livestock and recycling the rest. There is a new generation when they recycle electronic goods.TransportAmount of car ownership is increasing because: Urban sprawl = commuters travelling to city centre If businesses move away from city centre public services tend to be poorer = need to drive LEDC cities have higher standards living and wealth = car ownership. Population increase Ways to make it sustainable:Road schemes: Bus lanes allows buses to bypass traffic congestion. Kiribati, Brazil main roads in city centre has been expanded to allow two-way express lanes for buses. This makes bus services reliant and efficient. Cycle lanes - in 2005/06 UK created its first 'Cycle Towns' through government funding. This has increased and encouraged non-cyclists and provided a better network for already cyclists. High Occupancy Vehicle lanes - lanes that have to have a certain amount of people in e.g. Toronto, which operates during rush hours ad has encouraged car sharing. Toronto car sharing increased from 14% to 40% in 3 years. Toll roads and congestion charges e.g. London. Integrating transport systems Coordinating different types of public transport making times easier for passengers to transfer between different types of transport. Reduces journey time as less time is needed when waiting for connection. Makes people more likely to use public transport. Making it accessible for cyclists. Tempe, Arizona, buses have bike racks. Curitiba - 1600 buses in operation and passengers only need one ticket. 70% commuters use bus system and 30% less fuel per capita. Lowest pollution cities in Brazil. Pay fares at stops = faster loading time = less idling. Volvo's super-buses so good council scrapped the light railway project. Traffic management Bypasses Park and ride schemes. Cheaper than central parking. Often built on rural-urban fringe - construction on greenbelts and destruction of environment.Low carbon vehicles Hybrid, hydrogen and electric cars that run on biofuels. Renewable energy sources with less emissions. Singapore in 2010 have hydrogen-electric buses and only emit water. Improves air quality. Expensive to buy and difficult to refuel if facilities are not available and electricity is used from fossil fuels. Germany2000 - 2008 Germans cycled, walked and used public transport for +40% of their journeys, making them an environmentally sustainable society. There is an encouragement to buy hybrid cars - high tax on petrol and subsidies from government to buy hybrid cars. Alternative is incentives for public transport.Frieburg: Integrated transport system, with 'bike and ride' scheme - cycling to bus and train stations. Unified ticket system. Light rail system built within easy walking distance for 65% of residents - run every 7.5 minutes and integrated with 26 bus routes. Buses and light rail have priority at traffic signals - quicker journey time. City centre is entirely pedestrianised. Impact:1982 - 2007 car journeys fell from 38% to 32%. 68% of journeys are either walking, cycling or public transport.Requires little financial input from the state - passengers fare covers 90% of running costs.HousingMEDC Make affordable housing encourage part ownership between person and council. Restrict building on greenfield sites and encourage on brownfield sites. Link new housing estates to nearby employment hotspots and schools, if not integrate frequent public transport. Construct New Towns - Cwmbran, Milton Keynes - prevents urban sprawl. LEDC - main issue is shanty towns. Encourage self help schemes which is happening in Kibera slum Nairobi, Kenya. Contraception for lower birth rate - less housing needed. Increasing school attendance for women for economic growth in the future. Improve rural standards of living to prevent rural-urban migration. Examples of sustainable cities:BEDZED (Beddington Zero Energy Development, outskirts of London)Completed in 2002 and built on brownfield site - ENERGY NEUTRAL.ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING - south facing to maximise heat and light potential and used for solar energy, double glazing, cavity wall insulation.RENEWABLE MATERIALS - constructing projects with recycled or renewable sources.SELF-SUFFICIENT - focus on renewable energy.WATER - collected rainfall for toilets and gardens, waste water from bath is treated and reused.TRANSPORT - near public transport = no need for cars, electric cars used, car sharing initiative.Eco-townsBuilt near Bristol. Schools and jobs are closely linked which means people don't have to travel to work - could potentially be done to Llanwern SteelworksCuritiba's (LEDC)Garbage and recycling:Garbage is collected in two lots - organic and inorganic. Inorganic waste is sorted into metals, bass, plastics and paper. 2/3 waste is recycled. Recycling plant is made from recycled material. Created a positive multiplier effect > creates direct and indirect jobs > decreases poverty > affordable housing > out of shanty town = increasing standard of living.Transport system - see above for more.Green ExchangeGarbage trucks visit squatter settlements and people bring unwanted household items in return of food and bus tickets.

Food

Types of food production:Commercial - make a profitSubsistence - just enough to feed themselvesIntensive - produce as much as possible from the land. Two types 1.) Capital intensive - high input of capital e.g. fertilisers, pesticides and machinery. 2.) Labour intensive - uses a lot of labour.Extensive - opposite if intensive, less environmental impact.1.1. What is the global pattern of food consumption?Measured by daily calorie intakeGlobal pattern of low calorie intakeCalorie intake below acceptable levels - 963 million, a child dies every 5 seconds due to hunger.Because of lack of vital components for diet and over dependence on one food source. Malnutrition and disrupted food supply through civil war, made worse by illnesses.Countries of lowest calorie intake:Eritrea, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Mozambique, Afghanistan.Located around African continent.Wajir (NE) - KenyaDroughts - made worse by climate change. Remote areas with lack of government support - focused on urban standards of living (more potential voters). Corruption. No official death toll (several hundred) - starvation and malnutrition. Created and enhanced rural-urban migration = more strain on urban areas.Global pattern of high calorie intakeCulture of consumerism - high disposable incomeIncreases health spending and creates waste (waste management and morality - someone throwing food away, with people starving) and food miles issue (climate change).Over 300 million are classified as obese. Mainly in MEDCs but does occur in LEDCs - Pacific island, Samoa - genetics. Illnesses - heart disease, certain cancers and diabetes wth lack of exercise. US (2000) cost health care $61 billion.Globalisation of the food industry - increased trade and higher levels of consumerismIMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT:Increased production = over farmingIncreased transportation is needed - increase in food milesCHANGED DEMAND IN FOOD Increased demand for seasonal products all year round - imported e,g, Peaches Increased demand for high value food from poorer countries - exotic food - coffee from Ghana - problems with workers rights and overuse means problems for local produce. Increased demand for organic food - foods may contain pesticide residue which may be harmful, expensive to produce and buy. Increased demand for local produce - local food is more expensive (minimum wage etc.) and receiving locally impacts developing world. 1.2 What factors promote or hinder food production?PHYSICAL - temperature, rainfall, soil, growing season.ECONOMIC - subsistence, commercial based, tariffs, subsidies, quotas, TNCsPOLITICAL - overlap with economic. Stances on GM, trade blocs etc.Technological - GM food, irrigation, mechanisation, agrochemicals.PhysicalSome areas are naturally rich and fertile therefore capable of high output with low levels of input. Even better with modern methods.Some areas have low output because of erratic rainfall, poor/infertile soils or difficulty relating to the relief of the land.Natural events - Peru's fishing industry is affected with El Nino. Climate change.EXAMPLE - rice farming, Bangladesh+ Flat landSufficient water supply - Ganges water supply and monsoon rainfall.Fertile soil from silt-Population growthRented small farms - no ownershipExpense of machinery - lacks high outputPoor infrastructure which prevents link between farm - store - customerClimate change impactsOverall, suitable for subsistence agriculture but limited in commercial agriculture. EXAMPLE 2 - Sahel-Lack of reliable rainfallIncreased temperatureOveruse of soilIncreased population = soil erosion and land turning into desert landscapePolitical/economicEconomically valuable market - provides social and political stability.Subsidies.Technology Food production depends on level of technological input/availability. Some areas still depend on human and animal power (generally LEDCs and some RICs), whereas other areas of sophisticated machinery. MEDCs have a greater access - afford costs.Agribusiness - TNCsTrade bloc - EUCommon Agricultural Policy (CAP):Means state members farmers receive subsidies Tariffs were imposed which meant non-EU farmers have to pay tax to sell in EU. Quotas limit produce entering the EU.Negatively damages non-member agricultural industry - prevents development. But, protected vital industries within member states.WTO look for fair trade and promotes free trade.E.g. Cargill - operates in 66 countries, selling fertilisers, seeds and equipmentADVANTAGES: Increases variety of foods consumed Provides jobs and gives a nation economic security and positive multiplier effect. Invest into research for greater technologies. DISADVANTAGES Privately owned = controlling the price. Smaller companies can't compete. Intensive farming isn't eco-friendly and sustainable - see Sahel 1.3 Can food production be sustainably increased?Reducing food miles by buying locallyCan't always be grown locallyReplace intensive farming with organic farmingLess environmental impact- Less productive = more land required.Less food packagingReduces energy use and wasteReduce the number of mouths to feed:Demographic solutions (aimed at LEDCs) - sex education, family planning, acceptance of contraception, improving role of women, later marriages and improved economic development. Involves changing historic traditions and breaking deep rooted religious beliefs. Ironically told to do so by MEDCs who are at the root of the problem.EXAMPLE: 1 baby policy - China, infringement on human rightsImprove technology:Farm new areas that haven't previously been farmed - what if they're environmentally important? Cost of technology is high and damaging precious environmental land - not sustainable. E.g. Amazon Rainforest.Hydroponics/aeroponics:Consistent production - not affected by seasons/climate/weather. Example are USA and Middle East. There is an initial high cost and high energy required and question of safety - without soil.Plastic sheeting or poly-tunnels:Crops are sprayed with water and heat causes evaporation. Water is not lost as it is trapped and drips back onto the crop. e.g. Spain. They're used in the UK to stop frost from attacking crops and heat lamps can be used for heat = yearly consistency of production. It is intense wasting no space to maximise output. Impacts the landscape as seen in Spain.Blue revolution:Due to over fishing. There has been fishing quotas but they have been hard to monitor and not obliged by all nations. Blue revolution is an alternative. Fish are held in pens in the sea, lakes or lakes. large quantities of fish are produced. However, it is unnatural, gives fish a poor life cycle and is polluting from the feed and the waste in concentrated areas.Genetically Modified crops (GM):Widespread in USA, but not in Europe, which shows the controversy and lack of global support. There are ethical debates and concerns over safety. GM crops are insect resistant, which can affect the food chain and can kill non-pests like butterflies. Private companies are in control so they have the power to raise seeds price and decide what insecticide/herbicideGreen revolution: 1950-70s in some RICsCross breeding varieties of similar plants, perceived as the possibility to end world hunger. Rice crop known as IR8 which was smaller and shorter which means more planting could be done. But, needed regular water which meant buying pumps and digging channels for a water supply. Also, needed chemical fertiliser which was expensive and polluted the water supply. Machinery was needed which was costly - fuel and repair and also decreased employment and created the rural-urban migration pattern. possibility of a 'superpest'. Can be seen as successful as the Indian Prime Minister called for a 'Second Green Revolution'.Increase productionLand colonisation:Farm land that hasn't previously been farmed e.g. Amazon rainforest - environmentally damaging and not sustainable - only lead to more mouths to feed.Land reform:Land is re-distributed - government owned land is given to local people e.g. Albania in 1990s - ex communist state. Created conflicts on who actually owns the land.CommercialisationIncrease production for commercial farming with capital intensive initiative e.g. Kenya now exports tea (4th largest). + Increased trade on worls market - helps development- Food shortages and production is exported- Involves green revolution technologies.Diversification schemes promote enterpriseEncourage enterprise, reduces dependence on subsidies and agricultural products.Environmental stewardshipCase studyBangladesh - production doesn't meet demandHow can their food supply be managed? Investment in technology - subsidies and loans to invest in green revolution. Free market policies to encourage food imports - reduced quotas and import tariffs. Diversification - previously reliable on rice. With financial incentives and quota and free trade the market can diversify. Food aid when needed. ADVANTAGES: Investment into infrastructure. Social benefits. Diverse economy. DISADVANTAGES: Cost money - already an LEDC. Food imports and aid is not long term sustainable. Some technologies damage the environment. ConclusionGenerallyEducation on healthy lifestyles including diet and exercise. Environment and resources are respected and conservation is taken seriously.LEDCsHydroponics and aeroponics require a lot of energy and technology with a high cost - not ideal for sub-Saharan HIPCs = debt abolition and break down money barrier. Fish farming (blue revolution) is less costly and can be implemented through educations schemes, however, must consider morality and environment impact. GM can be successful if private companies distribute supply without money being a priority. LEDCs would struggle to set up and maintain and could be reliable on GM imports (if private companies wished to do so). To remove this TNCs can be independent from GM or scientific research with public bodies and NGOs finance. As GM is so controversial it would be a risky future - safety and support.

Water

IssuesPolitical opinion - marketed and priced.Social - human right.World water gap between rising demands and dwindling supplies: Global population growth Economic development - RICs Rising standards of living Climate change Water supplies are spread unevenly. 2/3 of the world receive less than 25% of worlds annual rainfall = scarcity. This made worse as they're generally in LEDCs which lack the capital to extract the water. Other areas have a water surplus.There is an imbalance in usage - MEDCs use 10x more per head than LEDCs.Pollution of water supplies - MEDCs, manufacturing and agriculture.Areas of concern include Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa and SE USA.What physical factors determine the supply of water?Precipitation - doesn't fall evenly. Areas can get rainfall regularly (equatorial areas like the rainforest), whereas other gets irregular rainfall (monsoon prone areas and Sahel). Temperature - higher temperature means higher evaporation rates.Shape of land - mountainous areas have high levels of precipitation.Rock type - impermeable soils offer storage opportunities which prevents evaporation loss.Location - closer to the sea means greater chance of rainfall, unless near a cold ocean current (G3 Deserts 1.1).How does human activity influence the supply and demand?Depletion of supply - Aral Sea (Kazakhstan) extracted water and a faster rate than it was being replenished = shrunk in size to 10% of original size - damaged local economy, communities and ecosystem UNSUSTAINABLE.Population growth Rising standards of livingMigration - strain on local water supplies e.g. tourism in Southern Spain.Economic development - RICs have to maintain agriculture, growing industry and domestic industry through urbanisation.= Untreated sewage disposal in LEDCs = water-borne diseases like cholera Chemical fertilisers contaminate groundwater and rivers. Industrial waste like heavy metals and chemical leftovers give the water supply toxins. How can the water supply and demand be managed sustainably?Management of supplies INCREASE STORAGE CAPACITY AND SUPPLIES - construction of dams and technology that catches rainwater in tanks. Dams have led to some rivers storing water that exceeds the annual flow e.g. Colorado, which has meant a lack of supply near the mouth. However, dams offer a multi-purpose - irrigation, flood control and HEP. Yet cause environmental destruction. African countries can benefit from small scale dams which involve a lower cost, community participation and less of an environmental impact. WATER TRANSFER SCHEMES - diversion f water from one drainage basin to another. Controversial as it involves large scale and high tech involvement. May lead to long-term un-sustainability as encourages more development in water deficit areas. GROUNDWATER SOURCES AND REPLENISHMENT - Long Island, New York has faced groundwater over abstraction so new projects of development legally have to collect rainwater to replenish groundwater supplies. DESALINATION - conserves fresh water supplies for future generations. Recent breakthrough in technology has led to a more cost effective and less energy intensive method. However, it is still extremely costly and creates a major ecological impact on marine life as salt concentrations in the sea rise = effect of food chain and corals. Management of demandsAGRICULTURE:'More crop per drop initiative' - automatic sprinklers and advanced drip irrigation e.g. Israel's smart irrigation. Recycled urban water usage for agriculture has a low cost.NGOs - WaterAid - Magic Stones.GM are pest, disease and salt tolerant.Murray Darling river basin - government has limited amount of water that can be extracted from the surface and the ground to 10%. Government has bought land to prevent over use by farmers.Hydroponics - drip fed nutrients and water, reduced growing time means less water and soil usage. Difficult for LEDCs due to cost aeroponic is similar.Plastic sheeting over crops - UK and Spain. Reducing water usage as water is trapped from plastic sheeting and falls back down on crops.Industry:20% of water use and if left unsustainable the global economy will falter.Rapid industrialisation, especially in LEDCs has led to the contamination of water supplies.TNCs have tried to reduce water consumption - increased recycling of water - laws prohibiting use of groundwater and rising costs of water.Domestic - mainly in MEDCs where standards of living are higher and RICs through urbanisation.Social approach - change attitudes and lifestyle e.g. installing water metres instead of fixed tariffs. Smart meters increase when temperatures are higher and rain is scarce (will companies be trusted to relier prices?). Rain harvesting in gardens. Purchasing appliance that are water efficient - discounts. Ban activities that use water e.g. car washes and certain times.Singapore has filtration systems that catch rainfall and rear sewage water. Psychologically hard to drink.Fixing leaks from broken main (is it negative as water gets replenished into groundwater?) encouraged through subsidies or rising prices if private. Treat and reuse industrial and waste water.Can sustainable water supplies be maintained in the future?People in LEDCs will suffer greatest. Water consumption needs to decrease in all sector. Food production needs to occur in areas where there is a water surplus and distribute production evenly. Agricultural needs scientific investment e.g. to make seeds demand less water. Globally educated the importance of a sustainable water supply. Water prices to increase and highlight conservation and recycling. Water extraction must be monitored.Are TNCs and governments prepared to invest into LEDCs?If this does occur there will be social implications that are unacceptable - e.g. closing of golf courses and swimming pools won't be socially accepted.Other solutions may have environmental impacts e.g. construction of dams.Must be a international and political agreement that water is necessity to all that must be managed sustainably for future demands - is this possible? No, not all countries are stable to co-operate, blinded by short-term prosperity and may be no initiative to help other countries.

Energy

Two types of energy - renewable and non renewable.Some resources are renewable if carefully managed: Wood - if deforestation is at a faster rate than growing it will not be renewable. Geothermal reservoirs - if power station is too large and water is pumped under ground the heat will decrease. UKs energy (2008)Oil consumption increased due to the discovery in the North sea in 1969.Coal had previously been high due to vast amount, yet decreased dramatically by the 1990s due to the Conservative government.Use of renewables has increased.France's energy (2008)Limited coal and oil resources so is imported - coal mining stopped completely in 2004.Limited fossil fuels meant high investment in nuclear energy (1970s)Global energy production distributionProductionMIDDLE EAST COUNTIES, RUSSIA - large amount of oilCHINA - large amount of coalNIGER - got uranium but lack capital to extractSPAIN - few fossil fuel reservesConsumptionWealthy nations consume mass amount due to high standards of living, industrialisation, transportation and materialism.Poorer nations consume little due to lower standards of living.GeopoliticsA stable and consistent supply is needed, countries are dependent otherwise economy and society cannot function. Made worse through purchasing from politically ad economically unstable countries - Russia that can disrupt supplies if EU put sanctions because of annexation of Ukraine. Political conflict can also occur due to environmental awareness schemes e.g. Kyoto Protocol and China being pressured not to use their mass coal reserves.Impacts of energy productionWood energy: e.g. Copperbelt, Zambia 1972 - 2000 3125 hectares of woodland was lost. Deforestation Habitat loss Soil erosion Fossil fuels: Acid rain - kills aquatic life, kills trees (both reduce biodiversity) and corrode rocks. Climate change - rising sea levels, more frequent and severe weather patterns and habitat loss. Problems with mining - displacing wildlife, habits loss, reduces air quality and contamination of surface water. Oil spills Will not last forever! Nuclear energy:+Low carbon dioxide emissions, less toxic waste, large amount of energy with small amount and electricity produced is cheap.-Nuclear waste is highly radioactive, accidents/leaks affect biotic life - cancers, not a renewable source and costly start up costs e.g. UK Eon will not invest in Hinkley Point due to high costs (private company).EXAMPLE 1 - France78% energy from nuclear power, cleanest air quality and cheapest electricity in Europe.EXAMPLE 2 - Chernobyl 1986 explosions caused 56 direct deaths, radiation was detected across Europe, contaminated biotic life and increased human mutations and cancer rates in surrounding areas.Sustainable energyWind energy - wind turbines1% world electricity. No fuel or greenhouse gases are emitted (only on production and installation).E.g. Denmark -Unpredictable, large numbers of turbines needed, kill or inure birds.BiomassMaterial that is/was living which is burnt to release energy, does reduce carbon dioxide however doesn't contribute to global warming as it was only the carbon dioxide that was taken in through plants.E.g. Brazil -Only renewable if carefully managed, fossil fuels are used in process when transporting.Solar powerE.g. Rizhan, China - 99% buildings have solar water heaters, 6000+ households have solar cookers and street lights and traffic lights are powered by solar.-Expensive, needs a sunny climate.Tidal energyE.g. Rance estuary, N. France has the largest tidal power station in the world. Produces energy for over 19000 homes-Expensive equipment, CO2 is emitted in construction period, barrages disrupt ecosystem and turbines can kill aquatic animals.Wave energy-Unreliable - not always waves, generators are expensive and construction period CO2 is emitted.Hydroelectric PowerSupplies 20% of world electricity and responsible for 60% renewable electricity.E.g. Nurek Dam, Tajikistan. Tallest in the world and has 9 HE turbines. 1994 it supplied 98% of countries electricity.-Created reservoir means destruction of communities and habitats, if dam breaks large area is flooded rapidly, ecosystems and fish migration patterns are disrupted.Energy conservationBuilding: Double glazing, draught-proofing, loft insulation and cavity wall insulation reduce heat loss = less need to heating. Energy efficient boilers. Energy saving appliances. Transport: Encourage cycling and walking - 'Cycle to work' scheme. Park and rude schemes and investment into public transport. Congestion charges. Example - London Congestion Charge (2003). Numbers of cars have decreased by 21% and CO2 emissions have dropped to 20%. 2007/08 £137million was raised and injected into public transport. Bike usage has increased 12% and public transport by 6%. However, if reliant on charge to invest into public transport schemes then it can not work.Technology - hydrogen fuel cell buses, electric buses, hybrid fuel vehicles.