Definitions

Chapter 1Music: The rational organization of sounds and silences as they pass through timePopular Music: A broad category of music designed to please a large section of the general public; sometimes used in contradistinction to more "serious" or more "learned" classical musicClassical Music: The traditional music of any culture, usually involving a specialized technical vocabulary and requiring long years of training; it is "high art" or "learned" music that is enjoyed generation after generationMotive: A short, distinctive melodic figure that stands by itself

Chapter 2Beat: An even pulse in music that divides the passing of time into equal segments Tempo: The speed at which the beats occur in music Ritard: A gradual slowing down of the tempo Downbeat: The first beat in every measure; indicated by a downward motion of the conductor's hand and usually stressed Accent: Emphasis or stress placed on a musical tone or chord Meter: The gathering of beats into regular groups Measure (Bar): A group of beats, or musical pulses; usually, the number of beats is fixed and constant so that the measure serves as a continual unit of measurement in music Duple Meter: Gathering of beats into two beats per measure, with every other beat stressed Triple Meter: Gathering of beats into three beats per measure, with every third beat stressed Rest: A silence in music of a specific duration Rhythm: The organization of time in music, dividing up long spans of time into smaller, more easily comprehended units Meter Signature (Time Signature): Two numbers, one on top of the other, usually placed at the beginning of the music to tell the performer what note value is carrying the beat and how the beats are to be grouped Bar Lines: Keeps the music from one measure separate from the next measure, thus it helps to keep the beat Pickup: A note or two coming before the first downbeat of a piece, intending to give a little extra push into that downbeat Syncopation: A rhythmic device in which the natural accent falling on a strong beat is displaced to a weak beat or between the beats Melody: A series of notes arranged in order to form a distinctive, recognizable musical unit; most often placed in the treble clef Pitch: The relative position, high or low, of a musical sound Octave: The interval comprising the first and eighth tones of the major and minor diatonic scale; the sounds are quite similar because the frequency of vibration of the higher Flat (b): In musical notation, a symbol that lowers a pitch by a half step Sharp (#): A musical symbol that raises a pitch by half a step Scale: An arrangement of pitches that ascends and descends in a fixed and unvarying pattern Minor Scale: A seven note scale that ascends in the following order of whole steps and half steps: 1-1/2-1-1-1/2-1-1 Mode: A pattern of pitches forming a scale; the two primary modes in Western music are major and minor Chromatic Scale: A scale that makes use of all twelve pitches, equally divided, within the octave Tonic: The central pitch around which the melody and harmony gravitate Tonality (Key): The organization of music around a central tone (the tonic) and the scale built on that tone Modulation: The process in music whereby the tonal centre changes from one key to another -- from G major to C major, for example Harmony: The sounds that provide the support and enrichment -- the accompaniment -- for melody Chord: Two or more simultaneous sounding pitches Triad: A chord consisting of three pitches and two intervals of a third Chord Progression: A succession of chords moving forward in a purposeful fashion Cadence: The concluding part of a musical phrase Dominant: The chord built on the fifth degree of the scale Dissonance: A discordant mingling of sounds Consonance: Pitches sounding agreeable and stable Ostinato: (Italian for "obstinate") A musical figure, motive, melody, harmony, or rhythm that is repeated again and again Canon (Round): A contrapuntal form in which the individual voices enter and each in turn duplicates exactly the melody that the first voice played or sang

Chapter 3Dynamics: The various levels of volume, loud and soft, at which sounds are produced in a musical composition Forte (f): In musical notation, a dynamic mark indicating "loud" Piano (p): In musical notation, a dynamic mark indicating "soft" Crescendo: A gradual increase in the intensity of sound Decrescendo (Diminuendo): A gradual decrease in the intensity of sound Colour (Timbre): The character or quality of a musical tone as determined by its harmonics and its attack and decay Soprano: The highest female vocal part Alto (Contralto): The lower of the two female voice parts, the soprano being higher Tenor: The highest male vocal range Bass: The lowest male voice range Mezzo Soprano: A female vocal range between soprano and alto Baritone: A male voice part of a middle range, between the higher tenor and the lower bass Chorus: Many voices joined together Overtone: Extremely faint sound, in addition to the fundamental sound of an instrument, caused by fractional vibrations of a string or air column within a pipe Symphony Orchestra: The large instrumental ensemble that plays symphonies, overtures, concertos and the like Vibrato: A slight and continual wobbling of the pitch produced on a string instrument or by the human voice Pizzicato: The process whereby a performer plucks the strings of an instrument rather than bowing them Tremolo: A musical tremor produced on a produced on a string instrument by repeating the same pitch with quick up and down strokes of the bow Trill: A rapid alternation of two neighbouring pitches Glissando: A device of sliding up or down the scale very rapidly Arpeggio: the notes of a triad or seventh chord played in direct succession and in a direct line up or down Mouthpiece: A detachable portion of a brass instrument into which the player blows Mute: Any device that muffles the sound of a musical instrument Stop: A knob (or key) on a pipe organ that, when pulled (or pushed), allows a particular group of pipes to sound, thereby creating a distinctive tone colourOrchestral Score: A composite of the musical lines of all the instruments of the orchestra and from which a conductor conducts Texture: The density and disposition of the musical lines that make up a musical composition; monophonic, homophonic and polyphonic are the primary musical textures Monophony: A musical texture involving only a single line of music with no accompaniment Unison: Two or more voices or instrumental parts singing or playing the same pitch Homophony: A texture in which all the voices, or lines, move to new pitches at roughly the same time; often referred to in contradistinction to polyphony Polyphony: A musical texture involving two or more simultaneously sounding lines; the lines are often independent and create counterpoint Counterpoint: The harmonious opposition of two or more independent musical linesForm: The purposeful organization of the artist's materials; in music. the general shape of a composition as perceived by the listener Statement: Presentation of an important musical idea Repetition: A process employed by a composer to validate the importance of a section of music by repeating it Contrast: A process employed by a composer to introduce different melodies, rhythms, textures, or moods in order to provide variety Variation: A process employed by a composer to alter melody or harmony in some way Strophic Form: A musical form often used in setting a strophic, or stanzaic, text, such as a hymn or carol; the music is repeated anew for each successive strophe  Chorus (Refrain): A stanza that gets repeated Theme and Variations: A musical form which a theme continually returns but is varied by changing the notes of the melody, harmony, rhythm, or some other feature of the music Binary Form: A musical form consisting of two units (A and B) constructed to balance and complement each other Repeat: A section of music is played again Ternary Form: A three-part musical form in which the third section is a repeat of the first; hence ABA Rondo Form: Classical form with at least three statements of the refrain (A) and at least two contrasting sections (at least B and C); placement of the refrain creates symmetrical patterns such as ABACA, ABACABA. or even ABACADA

Chapter 5Mass: The central religious service of the Roman Catholic Church, one that incorporates singing for spiritual reflection or as accompaniment to sacred acts Gregorian Chant (Plainsong): A large body of unaccompanied monophonic vocal music, set to Latin texts, composed for the Western Church over the course of fifteen centuries, for the time of the earliest fathers to the Council of Trent (1545-1563) Syllabic Singing: A style of singing in which each syllable of text has one note Melismatic Singing: Many notes sung to just one syllable Organum: The name given to the early polyphony of the Western Church from the ninth through the thirteenth centuries Proper of the Mass: The sections of the Mass that are sung to texts that vary with each feast day Ordinary of the Mass: The five sung portions of the Mass for which the texts are invariable Troubadour: A type of secular poet-musician that flourished in southern France during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Trouvère: A type of secular poet-musician that flourished in northern France during the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries Chanson: A French term used broadly to indicate a lyrical song from the Middle Ages into the twentieth century Hundred Years' War: The name given to a century-long series of military conflicts between the French and the English that took place on French soil Battle of Agincourt: A battle during the Hundred Years' War Carol: A song in the local language that might celebrate Christmas, Easter or even a military victory; makes use of strophic form Vielle: Medieval fiddle

Chapter 6Renaissance: rebirth Humanism: Renaissance belief that people have the capacity to create many things good and beautiful; it rejoiced in the human form in all its fullness, looked outward, and indulged a passion for invention and discovery Sistine Chapel: The pope's private chapel within his Vatican apartments Motet: A composition for  choir or larger chorus setting a religious, devotional, or solemn text; often sung a cappella Imitation: The process by which one or more voices, or parts, enter and duplicate exactly for a period of time the music presented by the previous voice A Cappella: A term applied to unaccompanied vocal music; originated in the expression a cappella Sistina, "in the Sistene Chapel" of the pope, where instruments were forbidden to accompany the singers Council of Trent: Two decade long conference at which leading cardinals and bishops undertook reform of the Roman Catholic Church, including its music (1545-1563) Counter-Reformation: A movement that fostered reform in the Roman Catholic Church in response to the challenge of the Protestant Reformation and lead to a conservative ,austere approach to art Falsetto: A high, soprano-like voice produced by adult male singers when they sing in head voice and not in full chest voice Castrato: A male adult singer who had been castrated as a boy to keep his voice from changing so that it would remain in the soprano or alto register Shawm: A double-reed woodwind instrument of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance; the precursor of the oboe Pavane: Slow, gliding Renaissance dance in duple meter performed by couples holding hands Galliard: Fast, leaping Renaissance dance in triple meter Madrigal: A popular genre of secular vocal music that originated in Italy during the Renaissance, in which usually four or five voice sing love poems Word Painting: The process of depicting the text in music, be it subtly, overtly, or even jokingly, by means of expressive musical devices Madrigalism: A device, originating in the madrigal, by which key words in a text spark a particularly expressive musical setting

Chapter 7Baroque: Term used to describe the arts generally during the period 1600-1750 and signifying excess and extravagance Doctrine of Affections: Early seventeenth century aesthetic theory that held that different musical moods could and should be used to influence the emotions, or affections, of the listener Monody: A general term connoting solo singing accompanied by a basso continuo in the early Baroque period Basso Continuo: A small ensemble of at least two instrumentalists who provide a foundation for the melody or melodies above; heard almost exclusively in Baroque music  Figured Bass: in musical notation, a numerical shorthand that tells the player which unwritten notes to fill in above the written bass note Terraced Dynamics: A term used to describe the sharp, abrupt dynamic contrasts found in the music of the Baroque era

Chapter 8Opera: A dramatic work in which the actors sing some or all of their parts; it usually makes use of elaborate stage sets and costumes Libretto: The text of an opera Overture: An introductory movement, usually for orchestra, that precedes an opera, oratorio, or dance suite Recitative: Musically heightened speech, often used in an opera, oratorio, or cantata to report dramatic action and advance the plot Simple Recitative: Recitative accompanied only by a basso continuo or a harpsichord, and not the full opera Aria: An elaborate lyrical song for solo voice Arioso: A style of singing and a type of song midway between an aria and a recitative Toccata: A one movement composition, free in form, originally for solo keyboard but later for instrumental ensemble as well Cornetto: A woodwind instrument, developed during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, that sounds like a hybrid of a clarinet and trumpet Chamber Cantata: A cantata performed before a select audience in a private residence; intimate vocal chamber music, principally of the Baroque era Chamber Music: Music, usually instrumental, performed in a small concert hall or private residence with just one performer on each part Basso Ostinato: A motive or phrase in the bass that is repeated again and again Ground Bass: The English term for basso ostinato

Chapter 9Idiomatic Writing: Musical composition that exploits the strengths and avoids the weaknesses of particular voices and instruments French Overture: An overture style developed by Jean-Baptiste Lully with two sections, the first slow in duple meter with dotted note values, the second fast in triple meter and with light imitation; the first section can be repeated after the second Sonata: Originally, "something sounded" on an instrument as opposed to something sung (a cantata); later, a multi-movement work for a solo instrument, or instrument with keyboard accompaniment Sonata da Camera (Chamber Sonata): A suite for keyboard or small instrumental ensemble made up of individual dance movementsSonata da Chiesa (Church Sonata): A suite for keyboard or small instrumental ensemble made up of movements indicated only by tempo marks such as grave, vivace and adagio; originally intended to be played in a church Solo Sonata: A work, usually in three or four movements, for keyboard or other solo instrument; when a solo melodic instrument played a sonata in the Baroque era, it was supported by the basso continuo Trio Sonata: An ensemble of the Baroque period consisting actually of four performers, two playing upper parts and two on the basso continuo instruments Walking Bass: A bass line that moves at a moderate pace, mostly in equal note values, and often stepwise up or down the scale Concerto: An instrumental genre in which one or more soloists play with and against a larger orchestra Solo Concerto: A concerto in which an orchestra and a single performer in turn present and develop the musical material in the spirit of harmonious competition Concerto Grosso: A multi-movement concerto of the Baroque era that pits the sound of a small group of soloists (the concertino) against that of the full orchestra (the tutti) Concertino: The group of instruments that function as soloists in a concerto grosso Tutti: (Italian for "all") The full orchestra or full performing force Ritornello Form: A form in a Baroque concerto grosso in which all or part of the main theme -- the ritornello (Italian for "return" or "refrain") -- returns again and again, invariably played by the tutti, or full orchestra Melodic Sequence: The repetition of a musical motive at successively higher or lower degrees of the scale

Chapter 10Subject: The term for a principal theme in a fugue Exposition: In a fugue, the opening section, in which each voice in turn has the opportunity to present the subject; in sonata-allegro form, the principal section, in which all thematic material is presented Episode: A passage of free, nonimitative counterpoint found in a fugue Fugue: A composition for three, four, or five parts played or sung by voices or instruments; begins with a presentation of a subject in imitation in each part and continues with modulating passages of free counterpoint and further appearances of the subject Pedal Point: A note, usually in the bass, sustained or continually repeated for a period of time while the harmonies change around it Cadenza: A showy passage for the soloist appearing near the end of the movement in a concerto; usually incorporates rapid runs, arpeggios, and snippets of previously heard themes into a fantasy-like improvisation Cantata: A term originally meaning "something sung"; in its mature state, it consists of several movements, including one or more arias, ariosos and recitatives; cantatas can be on secular subjects and intended for private performance or on religious subjects such as those of J. S. Bach for the German Lutheran Church Chorale: The German word for the hymn of the Lutheran Church; hence a simple religious melody to be sung by the congregation Da Capo Form: Ternary (ABA) form for an aria, so called because the performers, when reaching the end of B, "take it from the head" and repeat A

Chapter 11Dance Suite: A collection of instrumental dances, each with its own distinctive rhythm and character Opera Seria: A genre of opera that dominated the stage during the Baroque era, making use of serious historical or mythological subjects, da capo arias, and lengthy overtures Oratorio: A large-scale genre of sacred music involving an overture, arias, recitatives and choruses, but sung, whether in a theater or a church. without costumes or scenery

Chapter 12Enlightenment: Eighteenth century period in philosophy and letters during which thinkers gave free rein to the pursuit oftruth and the discovery of natural laws Comic Opera: A genre of opera that originated in the eighteenth century, portraying everyday characters and situations, and using spoken dialogue and simple songs Opera Buffa: (Italian for "comic opera") A genre of opera featuring light, often domestic subjects, with tuneful melodies, comic situations and happy endings Pianoforte: The original name for the piano Antecedent Phrase: The opening, incomplete-sounding phrase of a melody; often followed by a consequent phrase that brings the melody to close Consequent Phrase: The second phrase of a two-part melodic unit that brings a melody to a point of repose and closure Alberti Bass: A pattern of accompaniment whereby, instead of having the pitches of a chord sound all together, the notes are played in succession to provide a continual stream of sound

Chapter 13Viennese School: A group of Classical composers, including Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert, whose careers all unfolded in Vienna Esterházy Family: The richest and most influential among the German-speaking aristocrats of eighteenth-century Hungary, with extensive landholdings southeast of Vienna and a passionate interest in music; patrons of Haydn London Symphonies: The twelve symphonies composed by Joseph Haydn for performance in London between 1791 and 1795

Chapter 14Relative Major: The major key in a pair of major and minor keys; relative keys have the same key signature Minuet: A moderate dance in 3/4 time though actually danced in patterns of six steps, with no upbeat but with highly symmetrical phrasing Trio: An ensemble, vocal or instrumental, with three performers; also a brief, self-contained composition contrasting with a previous piece, such as a minuet or mazurka; originally, the trio was performed by only three instruments Serenade: An instrumental work for a small ensemble originally intended as a light entertainment in the evening Sonata-Allegro Form: A dramatic musical form that originated in the Classical period involving an exposition, development and recapitulation, with optional introduction and coda Transition (Bridge): In sonata-allegro form, the unstable section in which the tonality changes from tonic to dominant (or relative major) in preparation for the appearance of the second theme  Development: The centremost portion of sonata-allegro form, in which the thematic material of the exposition is developed and extended, transformed, or reduced to its essence; often the most confrontational and unstable section of the movement Fugato: A short fugue set in some other musical form, such as sonata-allegro or theme and variations Retransition: The end of the development section, where the tonality often becomes stabilized on the dominant in preparation for the return of the tonic (and first theme) at the beginning of the recapitulation Recapitulation: In sonata-allegro form, the return to the first theme and the tonic key following the development Coda: (Italian for "tail") A final and concluding section of a musical composition

Chapter 15 Finale: The last movement of a multi-movement composition, one that usually works to a climax and conclusion Canon (of Western Music): A core repertoire, or the "chestnuts," of classical music performed at concerts continually since the eighteenth century

Chapter 16Genre: Type of music; specifically, the quality of musical style, form, performing medium, and place of performance that characterize any one type of music Symphony: A genre of instrumental music for orchestra consisting of several movements; also, the orchestral ensemble that plays this genre Sinfonia: (Italian of "symphony") A one-movement (three - or four - movement) orchestral work that originated in Italy in the seventeenth century Köchel (K) Number: An identifying number assigned to each of the works of Mozart, in roughly chronological order, by Ludwig von Köchel (1800-1877) String Quartet: A standard instrumental ensemble for chamber music consisting of a single first and second violin, a viola, and a cello; also, the genre of music, usually in three or four movements, composed for this ensemble Double Exposition Form: A form, originating in the concerto of the Classical period, in which first the orchestra and then the soloist present the primary thematic material

Chapter 17Vocal Ensemble: In opera, a group of four or more solo singers, usually the principals Singspiel: (German for "singing play") A musical comedy originating in Germany with spoken dialogue, tuneful songs, and topical humour Diminished Chord: A triad or seventh chord made up entirely of minor thirds and producing a tense, unstable sound

Chapter 18 “Pathétique” Sonata: One of Beethoven's most celebrated compositions for piano Heiligenstadt Testament: Something akin to Beethoven's last will and testament, written in despair when he recognized that he would ultimately suffer a total loss of hearing; named after the Viennese suburb in which he was penned in “Heroic” Period (Middle Period): A period in Beethoven's compositional career (1803-1813) during which he wrote longer works incorporating broad gestures, grand climaxes, and triadic, triumphant themes “Eroica” (“Heroic”) Symphony: Beethoven's Symphony No. 3 (1803), originally dedicated to Napoleon but published as the "Heroic Symphony" Scherzo: (Italian for "joke") A rapid, jovial work in triple meter often used in place of the minuet as the third movement in a string quartet or symphony Ode to Joy: An die Freude by poet Friedrich von Schiller, set to music by Beethoven as a hymn in honour of universal brotherhood and used in the finale of his Symphony No. 9

Chapter 19 Chromatic Harmony: Harmony utilizing chords built on the five chromatic notes of the scale in addition to the seven diatonic ones; produces rich harmonies Rubato: (Italian for "robbed") In musical notation, a tempo mark indicating that the performer may take, or steal, great liberties with the tempo Character Piece: A brief instrumental work seeking to capture a single mood; a genre much favoured by composers of the Romantic era Virtuoso: An instrumentalist or singer with a highly developed technical facility

Chapter 20 Art Song: A genre of song for voice and piano accompaniment with high artistic aspirations Lied (pl. Lieder): (German for "song") The genre of art song, for voice and piano accompaniment, that orginated in Germany c. 1880 Schubertiad: A social gathering for music and poetry that featured the songs and piano music of Franz Schubert Song Cycle: A collection of several songs united by a common textual theme or literary idea Ballad: A vivid story told alternately in narrative verse and dramatic dialogue Through-Composed: A term used to describe music that exhibits no obvious repetitions or overt musical form from beginning to end Modified Strophic Form: Strophic form in which the music is modified slightly to accommodate a particularly expressive word or phrase in the text

Chapter 21 Program Music: A piece of instrumental music, usually for symphony orchestra, that seeks to recreate in sound the events and emotions portrayed in some extramusical source: a story, a play, a historical event, an encounter with nature, or even a painting Absolute Music: Instrumental music free of a text or any pre-existing program Program Symphony: A symphony with the usual three, four, or five movements in which the individual movements together tell a tale or depict a succession of specific events or scenes Dramatic Overture: A one-movement work, usually in sonata-allegro form, that encapsulates in music the essential dramatic events of the opera or play that follows Tone (Symphonic) Poem: A one-movement work for orchestra of the Romantic era that gives musical expression to the emotions and events associated with a story, a play, political occurrence, personal experience, or encounter with nature Ophicleide: A low brass instrument originating in military bands about the time of the French Revolution; the precursor of the tuba English Horn: An alto oboe, pitched at the interval a fifth below the oboe, much favoured by composers of the Romantic era Cornet: A brass instrument that looks like a short trumpet; it has a more mellow tone than the trumpet and is most often used in military bands Orchestration: The art of assigning to the various instruments of the orchestra, or of a chamber ensemble, the diverse melodies, accompaniments, and counterpoints of a musical composition Idée Fixe: Literally, a "fixed idea"; more specifically, an obsessive musical theme as first used in Hector Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique Dies Irae: A Gregorian chant composed in the thirteenth century and used as the central portion of the Requiem Mass of the Catholic Church Diminution: A reduction, usually by half, of all the rhythmic durations in a melody Col Legno: (Italian for "with the wood") An instruction to strong players to strike the strong of the instrument not with the horsehair of the bow, but with the wood of it Ballet: An art form that uses dance and music, along with costumes and scenery, to tell a story and display emotions through expressive gestures and movement Ballet Music: Music composed to accompany a ballet, with short bursts of tuneful melody and captivating rhythm, all intended to capture the emotional essence of the scene Celesta: A small percussive keyboard instrument using hammers to strike metal bars, thereby producing a right, bell-like sound Musical Nationalism: A movement in music in the nineteenth century in which composers sought to emphasize indigenous qualities in their music by incorporating folk songs, native scales, dance rhythms, and local instrumental sounds Russian Five: A group of young composers (Borodin, Cui, Balakirev, Rimsky-Korsakov, and Musorgsky) centred in St. Petersburg, whose aim was to write purely Russian music free of European influence Pentatonic Scale: A five-note scale found often in folk music and non-Western music

Chapter 22 Sustaining Pedal: The rightmost pedal on the piano; when it is depressed, all dampers are removed from the strings, allowing them to vibrate freely Soft Pedal: The left pedal of the piano, which, when depressed, shifts the keyboard in such a way that the hammers strike fewer strings, making the instrument sound softer Cross Stringing: A practice popularized by the Steinway Company whereby the lowest strings of the piano ride up and across those of the middle register, thereby giving the piano a richer, more homogenized sound Nocturne: A slow, introspective type of music, usually for piano, with rich harmonies and poignant dissonances intending to convey the mysteries of the night Bel Canto: (Italian for "beautiful singing") A style of singing and a type of Italian opera developed in the nineteenth century that features the brilliant tone and brilliant technique of the human voice Lisztomania: The sort of mass hysteria, today reserved for pop music starts, that surrounded touring Romantic-era pianist Franz Liszt Recital: A concert of chamber music, usually for a solo performer Etude: A short one-movement composition designed to improve one aspect of a performer's technique

Chapter 23 Prima Donna: (Italian for "first lady") The leading female singer in an opera Diva: (Italian for "goddess") A celebrated female opera singer; a prima donna Recitativo Accompagnato: A recitative accompanied by the orchestra instead of merely the harpsichord; the opposite of simple, or secco, recitative Scena: A scenic plan in Italian opera involving a succession of separate elements such as a slow aria, a recitative, and a fast concluding aria Cabaletta: The concluding fast aria of any two- or three-section operatic scene; a useful mechanism to get the principals off the stage

Chapter 24 Ring Cycle: A cycle of four interconnected music dramas by Richard Wagner that collectively tell the tale of the Germanic legend Der Ring des Nibelungen Bayreuth Festival: Still controlled by the descendants of Wagner, a festival that continues to stage the music dramas of Wagner - and only Wagner - at the Bayreuth Festival Theatre, an opera house built especially for that purpose Music Drama: A term used for the mature dramas of Richard Wagner Gesamtkunstwerk: (German for "total art work") An art form that involves music, poetry, drama, and scenic design; often used in reference to Richard Wagner's music dramas Endless Melody: An undifferentiated stream of solo singing and declamation Leitmotif: A brief, distinctive unit of music designed to represent a character, object, or idea; a tern applied to the motives in the music dramas of Richard Wagner

Chapter 25 Realistic Opera: A general term used for those operas of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that deal with everyday, gritty subjects; includes Italian verismo opera Verismo Opera: "Realism" opera; the Italian term for a type of late-nineteenth century opera in which the subject matter concerns the unpleasant realities of everyday life

Chapter 26 Double Stops: A technique applied to string instruments in which two strings are pressed down and played simultaneously instead of just one Orchestral Song (Orchestral Lied): A genre of music emerging in the nineteenth century in which the voice is accompanied by a full orchestra

Chapter 27 Impressionism: Late-nineteenth century movement that arose in France; the Impressionists were the first to reject photographic realism in painting, instead trying to recreate the impression that an object produces upon the senses in a single, fleeting moment Symbolists: A group of poets in late-nineteenth century Paris whose aesthetic aims were in harmony with those of the Impressionist painters; they worked to create a poetic style in which the literal meaning of the word was less important than its sound and the associations that the particular sound might produce Whole-Tone Scale: A six-note scale each pitch of which is a whole tone away from the next Parallel Motion: A musical process in which all of the lines of parts move in the same directions, and at the same intervals, for a period of time; the opposite of counterpoint Exoticism: Use of sounds drawn from outside the traditional Western European musical experience, popular among composers in late-nineteenth century Europe Bolero: A sultry Spanish dance in a slow tempo and triple meter

Chapter 28 Modernism: A bracing, progressive style that dominated classical music and the arts generally from the beginning to the end of the twentieth century Cubism: Early-twentieth century artistic style in which the artist fractures and dislocates formal reality into geometrical blocks and planes Octave Displacement: A process used in constructing a melody whereby a simple, nearby interval is made more distant, and the melodic line more disjunct, by placing the next note up or down an octave Seventh Chord: A chord spanning seven letter names and constructed by superimposing three thirds Ninth Chord: A chord spanning nine letters of the scale and constructed by superimposing four intervals of a third Eleventh Chord: A chord comprising of five intervals of a third and spanning eleven different letter names of pitches Tone Cluster: A dissonant sounding of several pitches, each only a half step away from the other, in a densely packed chord

Chapter 29 Impresario: Late-nineteenth century movement that arose in France; the Impressionists were the first to reject photographic realism in painting, instead trying to recreate the impression that an object produces upon the senses in a single, fleeting moment Ballets Russes: A Russian ballet company of the early twentieth century led by Sergei Diaghilev Neo-Classicism: A movement in twentieth century music that sought to return to the musical forms and aesthetics of the Baroque and Classical periods Primitivism: Artistic mode of expression that attempts to capture the unadorned lines, raw energy, and elemental truth of non-Western art and apply it in a Modernist context Polymeter: Two or more meters sounding simultaneously Polyrhythm: Two or more rhythms sounding simultaneously Polychord: The stacking of one triad or seventh chord on another so they sound simultaneously Second Viennese School: A group of progressive modernist composers that revolved around Arnold Schoenberg in Vienna in the early twentieth century Atonal Music: Music without tonality; music without a key centre; most often associated with the twentieth century avant-garde style of Arnold Schoenberg Expressionism: Powerful movement in the early-twentieth century arts, initially a German-Austrian development that arose in Berlin, Munich, and Vienna; its aim was not to depict objects as they are seen but to express the strong emotion that the object generates in the artist Sprechstimme: (German for "speech-voice") A vocal technique in which a singer declaims, rather than sings, a text at only approximate pitch levels Twelve-Tone Composition: A method of composing music, devised by Arnold Schoenberg, that has each of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale sound in a fixed, regularly recurring order Serial Music: Music in which some important component - pitch, dynamics, rhythm - comes in a continually repeating series

Chapter 30 Russian Revolution: Overthrow of the Russian tsar by the socialist Bolshevik Party in 1917 Formalism: Modern music, according to Soviet authorities in the 1920s and 1930s, who branded it as "antidemocratic" Ethnomusicologist: A musical anthropologist who does field work gathering and studying the music of indigenous peoples around the world Intermezzo: (Italian for "between piece") A light musical interlude intended to separate and thus break the mood of two more serious, surrounding movements or operatic acts or scenes

Chapter 31 Polytonality: The simultaneous sounding of two keys or tonalities Quarter-Tone Music: Music that makes use of quarter tones; the division of the whole tone, or whole step, into quarter tones, a division even smaller than the half tone, or half step, on the piano Collage Art: Art made up of disparate materials taken from very different places

Chapter 32 Musique Concrète: Music in which the composer works directly with sounds recorded on magnetic tape, not with musical notation and performers Computer Music: The most recent development in electronic music; it couples the computer with the electronic synthesizer to imitate the sounds of acoustic instruments and to produce new sounds Sampling: Reusing (and often repeating) portions of a previous sound recording in a new song Scratching: Sound processing that involves the rhythmical manipulation of a vinyl record Electronic Music: Sounds produced and manipulated by magnetic tape machines, synthesizers, and/or computers Synthesizer: A machine that has the capacity to produce, transform, and combine (or synthesize) electronic sounds Prepared Piano: A piano outfitted with screws, bolts, washers, erasers, and bits of felt and plastic to transform the instrument from a melodic one to a percussive one Chance Music: Music that involves an element of chance (rolling dice, choosing cards, etc.) or whimsy on the part of the performers; especially popular with avant-garde composers Minimalism: A style of modern music that takes a very small amount of musical material and repeats it over and over to form a composition Globalization: Development of an increasingly integrated global economy Cultural Revolution: Chairman Mao Zedong's social and political reformation of the People Republic of China between 1966 and 1976

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3