Language Levels

Semantics

metaphor: referring to something as something elsesimile: explicit comparison ("like", "as")personification: attributing human characteristic/personal nature to something nonhumanconnotation: associated, symbolic meaning of a word (often relies on culturally shared conventions)

Phonology

onomatopoeia: a sound written downphonetic spelling: written like it soundsprosody: "!"rhythmcontribute to entertainment & character portrayals & show emotions of subjects

Graphology

genre usually determines the visual choices of how to construct a texttexts can deviate from their genre by using the conventions of another genre: INTERTEXTUALITY

Word Classes

open classes: nouns: naming word (put 'the'/'a' in front)verbs: doing word (inflections ('s'/'ed') change tense)adjectives: describe the noun (before or after)adverbs: describe verb (manner, time, frequency, place, reason)closes classes:pronouns: stand in place of noun (personal pronouns = biggest category)determiners: add detail/clarity to noun ('the', 'an', 'a', 'mine', 'his', 'her')conjunctions: words that link clauses (coordinating, subordinating)prepositions: express relationship between 2 parts of a sentence (in, on, under, to)

Nouns

Properdenoted by use of Capital Letter'The Queen', 'Christmas', 'Amsterdam'Commonrefer to whole class of things'house', 'animal', 'fruit'Abstractgeneral ideas & concepts'kindness', 'difficulty', 'truth'Concretecan be seen or touched'pig', 'computer', 'table'

Adjectives

Basedescribes quality of a noun'big'Comparativecomparison of a quality between 2 nouns'bigger'Superlative3 or more are contrasted with the 1 optimum of that quality'biggest'

Adverbs

Manner: How?Time: When?Place: Where?Frequency: How often?Reason: Why?

Verbs

Main Verbs:dynamic: express physical action/eventstative: express states of being/internal processesAuxiliary Verbs:primary auxiliary verbs: BE // HAVE // DOmodal auxiliary verbsepistemic: express degrees of possibility/certainty/probabilitydeontic: express degrees of obligation/permission/ability/necessity in terms of freedom to act

Personal Pronouns

(person, number, case)I - 1st person - singular - subjectHe - 1st person - singular - subjectThey - 3rd person - plural - subjectUs - 1st person - plural - objectYou - 2nd person - singular/plural - subject/objectHim - 3rd person - singular - object

Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions AND BUT OR

Subordinating Conjunctions where before after until since when whenever while although though whether as because

Voice

Activethe subject is ACTIVELY doing what the verb denotes.

Passivesubject is RECEIVING the action denoted by the verb. less direct shifts focus to the object

Mood

Declarative (statement) – eg “The car is parked there Imperative (command) – eg “Park the car there”Interrogative (question) – eg “Where is the car parked” Exclamatory (exclamation) – eg “Oh damn!”

Rhetoric

used to persuade/influenceRhetorical QuestionsInterrogatives that don't expect a replyDesired response obvious from proceeding statements - heightens argument - fully involves audienceSyntactic Parallelismsimilar grammatical patterns that create a rhythm"one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind"Tricolonthree repeated thingshighlights key messages"Education, education, education""we offer quality, affordability, and reliability"

Phrases

one or more words functioning as a unit in a sentence head word w/ accompanying modifiers (pre/post. describe/give more info) Noun Phrasesgroup of words built around a nounVerb Phrasesgroup of words built around a verbAdverb Phrasesgroup of words providing info on the verb (where, when, how, how often, why)

Sentences

Simple Sentencea clause that makes sense on its ownCompound Sentence2+ clauses joined by COORDINATING conjunction (and/but/or)Complex Sentence2+ clauses joined by SUBORDINATING conjunction (and/but/or)1 main clause + subordinating clause(s)Minor Sentencenot complete clauses: lack a VERB or SUBJECTCompound-complex Sentencemixing coordinating & subordinating clauses