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| Frage | Antworten |
| Critical Period | Stage in the life during which the nervous system is especially sensitive to certain environmental stimuli. |
| Parasomnia | Sleep disorders that involve unwanted experiences that occur while you are falling asleep, sleeping or waking up. |
| Episodic Memory | Explicit Memory Involve specific events Allows ‘mental time-travel’ You “remember” episodic memories |
| Semantic Memory | Explicit Memory Involves facts and knowledge Without reference to any specific experience You “know” semantic memories |
| Explicit/declarative memory | Conscious Memory (Episodic and Semantic) |
| “Flashbulb” memories | Particularly vivid and distinctive memories for events (Suprisal, consequentiality, Rehearsal Meaningfulness, emotional arousal) |
| Implicit memory - procedural | acquired and used unconsciously, and can affect thoughts and behaviours |
| priming | Implicit memory exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus (Sentences heard previously are more likely to be accepted as true, reading upside down is remembered longer than what was actually read) |
| procedural memory | Implicit memory performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences (knowing movements to open an app, playing guitar hero) |
| Intentional Learning | learning that is motivated with intention and is usually goal directed |
| Incidental Learning | takes place without any intent to learn |
| Acquisition | Gradual formation of formation between CS and US Encompasses both intentional learning and incidental learning |
| Primacy Effect | its easier to recall the information one hears in the beginning of a series (if repeated to oneself) |
| recency effect | easier to recall information at the end of a series because it is still recent |
| Mental Capacity | 7 +/- 2 |
| chunks/chunking | Connecting information in a useful way (Roman Numerals - Star Wars episodes) WM capacity can be increased by chunking information effectively |
| Central Executive | central executive functions as a supervisory system that controls information flow from and to its hypothesized subordinate or "slave" systems Baddeley and Hitch |
| Visuospatial sketchpad | short-term storage of information seen (visual semantics) Baddeley and Hitch |
| phonological loop | short-term storage of information heard (language) Baddeley and Hitch |
| Episodic buffer | links visual, spatial and verbal information with a sense of chronological ordering |
| Level of processing | Greater level of brain activity during initial memory acquisition related to better recall |
| Shallow processing | stimulus is processed on its superficial and perceptual features instead of its meaning (remember all words with a capital letter) -> short memory |
| deep processing | processing of a stimulus for its meaningful properties (remember all words that are animals) -> longer memory |
| Maintenance rehearsal | form of processing information (repetition of a series of numbers) not effective |
| Mnemonics | "Eselsbrücken" rhymes, acronyms, mental images (Method of Loci) not really useful for understanding |
| retrograde amnesia | Memory from before the moment of brain injury is being disrupted (oppposite anterograde amnesia) |
| Retrieval cues | hints that make you think of a memory most effective when they match the level of processing |
| Encoding specificity principle | memories more easily retrieved if external conditions at the time of retrieval are similar to those in existence at the time the memory was stored (happy memories easier to recall when happy) |
| Context reinstatement | memories easier to retrieve when in same situation as when learned (information learned under water is easier recall under water than on land) |
| retention interval | time between learning and retrieving Retrieval decreases as retention interval increase |
| decay | loosing memory over time |
| interference | blocking of learning and or recall by remembering conflicting material |
| Proactive interference | Old information interferes with the retrieval of more recently learned information |
| Retroactive interference | More recently learned information interferes with retrieval of older information |
| Misinformation effect | participant will remember misleading information that the experimenter provided instead of information which was supposed to be remembered |
| Confirmation bias | we are more likely to believe things that support our own beliefs |
| Own race bias | recognize and differentiate between faces of our own race more easily than faces of another race |
| Own Age Bias | easier to recognize people our age |
| Own-gender bias | easier to recognize people of our own gender |
| Schemas | mental representations that summarise knowledge about an event or situation |
| Rationalisation | remembering things according to own view (people changing fantasy story to fit their knowledge) Transformation of details into more familiar and conventional |
| leveling | more likely to forget information which cannot be put into schema |
| sharpening | stronger memory of information that fits known schema |
| Reconstructive Memory | remembering is influenced by various other cognitive processes including perception, imagination, semantic memory and beliefs |
| learning | lasting change in behaviour that is the result of experience |
| Habituation | Decline in an organism's response to a stimulus Sensitive to the pattern stimuli presentation |
| Dishabituation | increase in a response caused by a change in something familiar |
| Classical conditioning | when a conditioned stimulus evokes a conditioned response because of being paired with a unconditioned stimulus that naturally evokes an unconditioned response |
| Unconditioned response (UR) | naturally occurring response (food - salivation) |
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) | naturally occurring stimulus that elicits UR (food - salivation) |
| conditioned response (CR) | a stimulus that is original neutral but can be conditioned into producing a response by pairing with an US |
| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) | a response to a CS produced by pairing it with an US |
| Biological preparedness | idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses (Not all phobias occur with the same frequency ) |
| Second-order conditioning | Conditioning where the US was earlier a CS (always drinking wine with a cigarette connected to pleasurable feeling -> associating wine with needing to smoke and gaining pleasure) |
| extinction | disappearance of a previously learned behaviour when the behaviour is not reinforced |
| Excitatory connection | associating a stimulus with something positive (bell leads to food) |
| Inhibitory connection | associating a stimulus with something negative or nothing at all (in extinction) (Bell without food) |
| CS+ | Conditioned stimulus that tells you something is happening (red light means shock) |
| CS- (inhibitor) | Conditioned stimulus that tells you something is not going to happen (yellow light means no shock) -> more calm than baseline during CS- |
| Backward pairing | US (shock) presented before CS (tone) does not work well for conditioning |
| Simultaneous pairing | two stimuli presented at the same time |
| Forward pairing | CS (tone) began before the US (shock) works well when difference is small (0.5s) then decreases with longer time between CS and US |
| blocking | second order conditioning does not happen when second order stimulus is redundant (broom playing GoT song) |
| Spontaneous recovery | if CS is presented after extinction it produces spontaneous recovery |
| generalisation gradient | CS is also produced when CS is slightly different (the bigger the difference the lesser the response) |
| Homeostasis | psychological and physiological state of stability |
| Contingency | (theory) for learning to take place, a stimulus must provide the subject information about the likelihood that certain events will occur (is the appearance of the bell contingent to the appearance of the food) |
| One-trial learning | Learning in one presentation (taste aversions - bad food leads to dislike for long time) |
| Elaborative interrogation | turning facts to be learned into why-questions and then answering them activates schemas 2/3 |
| summarisation | Searching for and extracting meaning lack of evidence 1/3 |
| Highlighting and underlining | pick out most important sections, must consider meaning Overall no effect of highlighting versus control groups 1/3 |
| Isolation effect | Unique items are better remembered than less distinctive items |
| rereading | rereading the information supplied 1/3 |
| Quantitative hypothesis (rereading) | Increases the amount of information encoded |
| Qualitative hypothesis | Emphasis is placed on conceptual organisation and processing of main ideas |
| Massed practice | Cramming learning in short time |
| spaced practice | rereading with longer intervals of breaks outperforms massed practice in delayed tests |
| Practice testing | repeating infos in tests Enhances retention of information by triggering elaborative retrieval processes 3/3 |
| Distributed practice | practicing multiple times over a long time 3/3 |
| Lag effects | recall after long lags between learning is better versus short lags |
| Deficient processing | even though an individual has seen a task performed it is unlikely that they can reproduce that action without hands-on training |
| Procrastination scallops | Students will not engage in distributed study unless forced to |
| Interleaved practice | alternate practice of different kinds of items or problems 2/3 |
| Blocked study | all content from one subtopic if studied before moving on to the next |
| phoneme | smallest unit of language that can distinguish one word from another (cat-rat-bat) |
| allophones | changing the allophone changes the sound of the realization of word but does not change the meaning of the word |
| cooing | 2 months single vowel sounds |
| babbling | 3-4 months consonant vowel pairs, ba, da, ma |
| reduplicated babbling | 6 months babababa |
| non-reduplicated babbling | 7-10 months reflects sounds and intonations of mother tongue |
| holophrases | 12-18 months ‘getti instead of spaghetti |
| telegraphic speech | 18-24 months Two-word phrases ordered according to syntactic rules |
| basic-level words | denote the whole first (dog, cat, bread) |
| superordinates | high level description (animal, food) |
| subordinates | lower level description (beagle, wheatbread) |
| overextension | Specific names sometimes treated as basic-level terms (calling all dogs Lotta) |
| underextension | basic level terms used as specific names (naming stuffed animal "dog") |
| fast-mapping | used by children new concept is learned (or a new hypothesis formed) based only on a single exposure to a given unit of information |
| Simultaneous bilingualism | learning two languages at the same time |
| sequential bilingualism | learning one language first and then a second language right after the first |
| over-regularisation | grammatical errors where language rules are applied too generally (go - goed, instead of go - went) |
| Homesign | sign language spoken at home |
| Bilingual advantage | Need to constantly inhibit other language, leads to improved cognitive control |
| Language acquisition device | innate system that allows to combine words into grammatically consistent, new words and to understand the meaning of sentences they hear |
| Universal grammar | built-in storehouse of rules common to all languages |
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