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| Frage | Antworten |
| check 1.1 Id the components of the Cell Theory | 1. all living things are made of cells 2. cell is the basic functional unit of life 3. cells only arise from pre-existing cells 4. cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA |
| Check 1.2 a. components of a light microscope and their functions | 1. diaphragm: controls the amount of light passing through the specimen 2. coarse adjustment knob: roughly focuses the image by moving the stage 3. fine adjustment knob: finely focuses the image |
| check 1.2 b. advantages and disadvantages of different kinds of microscopy | a. compound light microscope- most common, used for nonliving specimens b. phase contrast microscope: for living organisms, uses differences in refractive indices c. electron microscope: most powerful microscope- down to the atomic level, uses a beam of electrons, in picometers |
| check 1.2 c. autoradiography and centrifugation | autoradiography: uses radioactive decay to follow biochm. processes that occur in the cell, exposed to an essential cmpd that include radioactive atoms, the cells are incubated, fixed, covered with photographic film and kept in the dark, image on the film shows the distribution of radioactive material within the cell centrifugation: spinning at very rapid speeds, it increases the force put on the material in the test tubes and separates stuff by gravity |
| check 1.3 prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes | prokaryotes: bacteria, cell wall in all, no nucleus, ribosomes (30S and 50S), no membrane bound organelles, unicellular eukaryotes: protists, fungi, plants, animals, cell in some stuff, nucleus, ribosomes (40S, 60S), membrane bound organelles, uni or multicellular |
| check 1.4 organelles: nucleus | functions as city hall, contains DNA, has subsection nucleolus where the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is made |
| check 1.4 organelles: ribosomes | responsible for protein production; 2 types free and bound |
| check 1.4 organelles: endoplasmic reticulum | 2 types: smooth and rough (ribosomes); ER is responsible for the proper production and sorting of materials from cell, shipping center |
| check 1.4 organelles: Golgi Apparatus | repackages certain products; gets stuff from smooth ER, and sends to cell surface |
| check 1.4 organelles: vesicles and vacuoles (plant) | used to transport and store materials that are ingested, secreted, processed, or digested by the cell |
| check 1.4 organelles: lysosomes | garbage dumps of cells, material is brought in by endosomes, break down materials ingested by the cell; autolysis |
| check 1.4 organelles: mitochondria | powerhouse of the cell, inner membrane: ETC |
| check 1.4 organelles: microbodies | catalyze specific types of rxn by sequestering the necessary enzymes and substrates peroxisomes: create hydrogen peroxide within a cell, break down fats, detoxifaction catalysis in liver glyoxysomes: important in germinating plants; convert fats to fuel |
| check 1.4 organelles: chloroplasts | solar power plants found in photosynthetic organisms (plants and algae) |
| check 1.4 endosymbiotic theory | certain eukaryotic organelles originated from ingested prokaryotes (ex. mitochondria) |
| check 1.4 organelles: plants vs. animal | plants have glycosomes, chloroplasts, cell well (cellulose) |
| check 1.4 cytoskeleton | its the highway system of our cell, transport system and structural strength 3 cmpts: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments microfilaments: actin and myosin- muscular contraction, movement of materials within cell membrane microtubules are hollow and polymers of tubulin proteins, involved in chromosomal separation, structural basis for cilia and flagella intermediate filaments help maintain the overall integrity of the cytoskeleton |
| check 1.5 hypotonic | hypotonic soln: concentration of solutes inside the cell is higher than the surrounding soln; causes the cell to swell - burst |
| check 1.5 hypertonic | hypertonic soln: higher concentration outside the cell, water leaves the cell and it shrivels |
| check 1.5 isotonic | equal concentrations with equal H20 flow |
| check 1.5 facilitated diffusion/passive transport | uses integral membrane proteins to serve as channels for substrates to avoid the hydrophobic region |
| check 1.5 simple diffusion | doesn't need energy, move down concentration gradient |
| check 1.5 active transport | uses energy, goes against the conc. gradient, transports polar molecules or ions |
| check 1.5 osmosis | simple diffusion of water |
| check 1.6 virus | nuclear info may be circular or linear, single or double stranded, DNA or RNA, hijacks a cell machinery, virus will replicate and turn out new copies of itself known as virions |
| check 1.6 bacteriophages | specifically target bacteria, inject genetic material, has nuclei acid, protein coat, tail sheath, tail fibers |
| check 1.6 virus is nonliving | obligate intracellular parasites- cannot replicate independently |
| ch. 1 post-test 5. which of the following types of nucleic acid will never be found in a virus? | In a virus, nucleic acid can be either linear or circular and is found in 4 varieties: 1 strand DNA/RNA, 2x DNA/RNA |
| ch. 1 post-test 8. Which of the following is NOT a function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum? | the smooth ER is involved in transport of materials throughout the cell, in lipid synthesis, and in the detoxification of drugs and poisons. Proteins can cross into smooth ER, where they are secreted into cytroplasmic vesicles and transported to the Golgi apparatus. Protein syn. is not a function of the smooth ER but rather of the ribosomes associated with the rough ER |
| check 2.1 functions of enzymes | lower activation energy of a rxn, do not affect the overall delta G or delta H, are not changed or consumed in the course of the rxn |
| check 2.2 substrate and enzyme specifity | enzymes tend to catalyze a single rxn or a class of rxns |
| check 2.2 lock and key theory | enzyme's active site (lock) is already in the appropriate confirmation for the substrate (key) to bind |
| check 2.2 induced fit theory | more scientifically accepted; substrate and enzyme active site don't seem to fit together, once the substrate is present and ready to interact with the active site, molecules find the induced form or transition state. shape of the active site becomes complementary only after the substrate binds the enzyme |
| check 2.3 role of cofactors and coenzymes in supporting the catalysis of biological rxns | cofactors: nonprotein molecules (ie small metal ions and small organic groups) coenzymes: the organic cofactors, a vast majority are vitamins |
| ch. 2.4 enzyme: substrate concentration | add more substrate, rate of rxn increase until we begin to level off and reach a max |
| check 2.4 enzyme: substrate concentration | rxn rate= .5Vmax, Km= [S], when [S] is less than Km, changes in [S] will greatly affect the rxn rate, at high [S], it exceeds Km and approaches Vmax |
| check 2.4 enzyme: temperature | enzyme-catalyzed rxns tend to double in rate for every 10 C increase until the best temp is reached for the human body it is 37 C |
| check 2.4 enzyme: pH | in human blood, optimal pH is 7.4, pH of 7.3 is acidosis; pepsin-stomach has max activity around pH 2, pancreatic enzymes (small instestine) work best around pH 8.5 |
| check 2.5 allosteric effects | allosteric enzymes alternate tween an active/inactive form, causes conformational shift in the protein, and there are activators and inhibitors |
| check 2.5 allosteric effects: hemoglobin | the binding of one molecule of oxygen to hemoglobin shifts the entire molecule, so there is an increased affinity of the remaining subunits for oxygen |
| check 2.5 feedback inhibition | used in hormone inhibition; the product of a rxn may bind to an enzyme or enzymes that acted earlier in its biosynthetic pathway, thereby making the enzyme unavailable for other substrates to use |
| check 2.5 competitive inhibition | occupancy of the active site, can be overcome by adding more substrate so that the substrate to inhibitor ratio is higher, increase in Km |
| check 2.5 noncompetitive inhibition | inhibitor binding to an allostreric site that changes the enzyme conformation; cannot be overcome by adding substrate, Km unchanges but Vmax lowers |
| check 2.6 zymogens | zymogens: have a catalytic (active) domain and regulatory domain, regulatory domain must be either removed or altered to expose the active site |
| Ch. 2 post-test positive feedback examples | childbirth, and clotting |
| check 3.1 energy storage molecules that are made or used by cells | ATP: adenosine triphosphate- primary NAD+: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide -- NADH (reduced) FAD: flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2) |
| check 3.1 cellular respiration equation | C6H12O6 + O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy |
| check 3.2 Glycolysis | Glucose + 2 ADP + 2Pi + 2 NAD(+)--> 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2H(+) + 2 H20 |
| check 3.2 glycolysis and ATP | total energy output of 4 ATP but a net output of only 2 ATP cause 2 are used to drive the process |
| check 3.2 fermentation | fermentation reduces pyruvate to either ethanol or lactic acid; NADH is oxidized to NAD + |
| check 3.2 alcohol fermentation | pyruvate (3C) --> CO2 + acetaldehyde (2C) acetaldehyde + NADH + H+ --> ethanol (2C) + NAD + |
| check 3.2 lactic acid fermentation | pyruvate (3C) + NADH + H+ --> Lactic Acid + NAD+ |
| check 3.2 cori cycle | lactic acid conversion to pyruvate |
| check 3.2 cellular respiration overview | 36 to 38 ATP per molecule of glucose and its aerobic; has 3 major parts pyruvate decarboxylation, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain |
| check 3.2 pyruvate decarboxylation | 2C are lost as CO2 2 pyruvate (3C) + 2 CoA + 2 NAD+ --> 2 NADH + 2 Acetyl-CoA (2C) + 2 CO2 (1C) |
| check 3.2 citric acid cycle in/out in words | cycle starts with the combination of acetyl-CoA (2C) and oxaloacetate (4C) to generate citrate (6C), 8 rxns, 2 CO2 molecules released, and oxaloacetate is regenerated |
| check 3.2 citric acid cycle energy | every turn of the cycle makes 1 ATP generate high-energy electrons that are carried by NADH and FADH2; for each molecule of acetyl-CoA that enters the cycle, 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are produced (x2 to get total for 1 glucose) |
| check 3.2 citric acid cycle: overall rxn | 2 Acetyl-CoA + 6 NAD+ + 2 FAD + 2 GDP + 2 Pi + 4 H20 --> 4 CO2 + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 ATP + 4 H+ + 2 CoA |
| check 3.2 Electron Transport Chain | oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which electron from NADH and FADH2 are passed along an assembly line of carriers that release free energy with each transfer: carriers are cytochromes |
| check 3.2 final electron acceptor | O2 |
| check 3.2 poison inhibition of ETC | cyanide blocks the final transfer of e- to O2; DNP (dinitrophenol) destroys the mitochondrion's ability to generate a useful H+ gradient that's necessary for effective ATP generation |
| check 3.2 ATP generation and the proton pump | energy production relies on coupling the energy drops to the phosphorylation of ADP; H+ gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane links the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 to ADP phosphorylation; H+ accumulates in the mitochondrial matrix |
| check 3.2 proton-motive force | electrochemical gradient drives H+ passively back across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the mitochondrial matrix |
| check 3.2 oxidative phosphorylation | H+ ions pass through ATP synthases back into the matrix, the energy released allows for the phophorylation of ADP to ATP |
| check 3.3 metabolism of fats | fatty acids undergo beta oxidation which produces acetyl-CoA (TCA input), can undergo 24 rounds |
| check 3.3 metabolism of proteins | only used when carbs are insufficient, transaminases remove the amine moiety from amino acids and create alpha-keto acids, these acids can be converted into acetyl-CoA or intermediates of TCA cycle |
| check 3.2 metabolism of carbs vs. fats vs. proteins | all lead to TCA cycle and CO2 |
| ch. 3 post-test 12. what is the total amount of ATP yielded by the catabolism of 1 glucose molecules via Krebs cycle? | 24 ATPs Total ATP made/acetyl-CoA molecule: 3x3 (from NADH) + 2 (FADH2) + 1 (GTP)= 12 X2(times around) = 24 |
| ch. 3 post-test Given the triglyceride breakdown process, why does it generally take a long time to lose pounds of fat while dieting? | There is a great amount of energy stored in triglycerides, which make up a large % of fat tissue. in order to lose a fat molecule or a pound of fat you must use up all energy in the fat without storing more fat, so much energy in the fat that the process of fat loss takes a long time |
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