CO-ORDINATES THE ACTIVITIES OF THE THREE SUBSYSTEMS IN
MEMORY. IT ALSO ALLOCATED PROCESSING RESOURCES TO THOSE
ACTIVIITES
ALLOCATED SLAVE SYSTEMS TO TASKS
LIMITED PROCESSING CAPACITY
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
PART OF WORKING MEMORY THAT DEALS
WITH SPOKEN AND WRITTEN MATERIAL. IT
CAN BE USED TO REMEMBER A PHONE
NUMBER. - CONSISTS OF TWO PARTSs
PHONOLOGICAL STORE (INNER EAR)- LINKED TO SPEECH
PERCEPTION. HOLDS INFORMATION IN SPEECH-BASED FORM (I.E.
SPOKEN WORDS) FOR 1-2 SECONDS.
ARTICULATORY CONTROL PROCESS (INNER VOICE) -
LINKED TO SPEECH PRODUCTION. USED TO REHEARSE
AND STORE VERBAL INFORMATION FROM THE
PHONOLOGICAL STORE.
BADDELEY AND HITCH DEVELOPED AND ALTERNATIVE MODEL OF
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
THERE ARE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES ON
INFORMATION
VISUO-SPATIAL SKETCHPAD (INNER EYE)
STORES AND PROCESSES INFORMATION IN A VISUAL OR SPATIAL
FORM. THE VSS IS USED FOR NAVIGATION
EPISODIC BUFFER
TEMPORARY STORE FOR INFORMATION, INTEGRATING THE VISUAL,
SPATIAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION PROCESSED BY OTHER STORES
AND MAINTAINING A SENSE OF TIME SEQUENCING - BASICALLT
RECORDING EVENTS THAT ARE HAPPENING. IT CAN BE SEEN AS THE
STORAGE COMPONENT OF THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE AND HAS A
LIMITED CAPACITY OF ABOUT FOUR CHUNKS. THE EPISODIC
BUFFER LINKING WORKING MEMORY TO LTM AND WIDER
COGNITIVE PROCESSES SUCH AS PERCEPTION
CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION
CODING (THE FORMAT IN WHICH
INFORMATION IS STORED IN THE
VARIOUS MEMORY STORES)
CONVERTING INFO FROM
ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
ALAN BADDELEY (1966)
CAPACITY
JOSEPH JACOBS 1887
PARTIPANT ASKED TO RECALL (4 DIGITS) IN CORRECT
ORDER OUT LOUD. INCREASE BY ONE IF SUCCESSFUL
ETC.
FOUND THE MEAN SPAN WAS 9.3 ITEMS FOR
NUMBERS. THE MEAN SPAN FOR LETTERS WAS 7.3
GEORGE MILLER 1956 - NOTED THAT THINGS COME IN
SEVENS: (7 NOTES ON MUSICAL SCALE, DAYS OF THE WEEK,
DEADLY SINS). THIS SUGGESTS THAT THE SPAN OF STM IS
ABOUT 7 (PLUS OR MINUS 2) . HOWEVER, MILLER ALSO
NOTED THAT PEOPLE CAN RECALL 5 WORDS AS WELL AS
THEY CAN RECALL 5 LETTERS. THEY DO THIS BY CHUNKING-
GROUPING SETS OF DIGITS OR LETTERS INTO UNITS OR
CHUNKS.
DURATION
STM - MARGARET AND LLOYD PETERSON
TESTED 24 UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS (8
TRIALS PER). ON EACH TRIAL GIVEN A
CONSONANT SYLLABLE TO REMEMBER AND
ALSO A 3 DIGIT NUMBER. THE STUDENT WAS
ASKED TO COUNT BACKWARDS FROM THE 3
DIGIT NUMBER UNTIL TOLD TO STOP. (prevent
mental rehearsal) ON EACH TRIAL THEY WERE
TOLD TO STOP AFTER A DIFFERENT AMOUNT
OF TIME (RETENTION INTERVAL)
% OF CORRECT RESPONSES DECREASED LONGER THE INTERVAL.
SUGGESTING STM MAY HAVE A VERY SHORT DURATION INDEED UNLESS
WE REPEAT SOMETHING OVER AND OVER AGAIN.
LTM - HARRY BAHRICK ET AL
STUDIED 392 PARTICIPANTS (HIGH SCHOOL
YEARBOOKS OBTAINED) . RECALL WAS TESTED IN
VARIOUS WAYS,
DURATION
TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY
EPISODIC
ABILITY TO RECALL EVENTS FROM OUR LIVES. THESE
MEMORIES ARE ' TIME-STAMPED' ALLOWING YOU TO
REMEMBER WHEN THEY HAPPEN. A MEMORY OF A
SINGLE EPISODE WILL INCLUDE SEVERAL ELEMENTS
HAVE TO MAKE A CONSCIOUS
EFFORT TO RECALL EPISODIC
MEMORIES. MAY BE ABLE TO
RECALL (BUT NEED TO KNOW
WHAT YOU WERE DOING)
SEMANTIC
CONTAINS OUR
KNOWLEDGE OF THE
WORLD. INCLUDES FACTS IN
THE BROADEST SENSE.
NOT TIME STAMPED. WE DON'T KNOW WHERE WE LEARNT IT.
SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE IS LESS PERSONAL . IMMENSE
COLLECTION OF INFO
PROCEDURAL
MEMORY FOR ACTIONS, SKILLS OR BASICALLY HOW WE DO THINGS. WE CAN RECALL
THESE MEMORIES WITHOUT CONSCIOUS AWARENESS OR A GREAT DEAL OF EFFORT.
(DRIVING) OUR ABILITY TO DO THIS DEPENDS ON PROCEDURAL MEMORY. HARD TO
EXPLAIN TO SOMEONE ELSE.
MULTI-STORE MODEL
SENSORY
REGISTER
STIMULUS FROM THE ENVIRONMENT
PASSES INTO THE SENSORY REGISTERS
ALONG WITH LOTS OF OTHER
SIGHTS,SOUNDS, SMELLS AND SO ON.
ICONIC MEMORY
VISUAL INFO CODED
VISUALLY
ECHOIC MEMORY
SOUND- OR AUDITORY
INFO CODED
ACOUSTICALLY
LASTS BIREFLY
HIGH CAPACITY
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
LIMITED CAPACITY STORE. CAN ONLY
HOLD A CERTAIN AMOUNT ( AROUND
5 )
CODED SEMANTICALLY
MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL OCCURS WHEN WE REPEAT
MATERIAL TO OURSELVES OVER AND OVER AGAIN. WE
CAN KEEP THE INFORMATION IN OUR STMS AS LONG AS
WE REHEARSE IT LONG ENOUGH, IT PASSES INTO
LONG-TERM MEMORY
LONG-TERM
MEMORY
PERMANENT MEMORY STORE FOR
INFORMATION THAT HAS BEEN
REHEARSED FOR A PROLONGED TIME
Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s
(1968)
EXPLANATIONS FOR FORGETTING
RETRIEVAL FAILURE
A FORM OF FORGETTING. IT OCCURS WHEN WE DON'T HAVE THE NECESSARY CUES TO ACCESS
MEMORY. THE MEMORY IS AVAILABLE BUT NOT ACCESSIBLE UNLESS A SUITABLE CUE IS
PROVIDED
ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE
CONTEXT-DEPENDENT FORGETTING
STATE-DEPENDENT FORGETTING
INTERFERENCE
PROACTIVE
WHEN OLDER MEMORIES, ALREADY SORTED, DISRUPT THE RECALL
OF NEWER MEMORIES. THE DEGREE OF FORGETTING IS GREATER
WHEN THE MEMORIES ARE SIMILAR.
RETROACTIVE
WHEN NEWER MEMORIES DISRUPT THE RECALL OF
OLDER MEMORIES ALREADY SORTED. AGAIN GREATER
WHEN THE MEMORIES ARE SIMILAR.
EFFECTS OF SIMILARITY
JOHN MCGEOCH AND WILLIAM MCDONALD 1931
SIMILAR MATERIAL (SYNONYMS) PRODUCED THE WORST RECALL. THIS
SHOWS THAT INTERFERENCE IS STRONGEST WHEN THE MEMORIES ARE
SIMILAR
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
ANXIETY
NEGATIVE
ANXIETY CREATES PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL IN
THE BODY WHICH PREVENTS US PAYING
ATTENTION TO IMPORTANT CUES, SO RECALL IS
WORSE.
JOHNSON AND SCOTT (1976) - LOW ANXIETY AND
HIGH ANXIETY CONDITIONS. GREASE ON HANDS VS
BLOOD ON HANDS. = 49% WAS ABLE TO PICK OUT
THE MAN FROM LOW ANXIETY CONDITION AND
HIGH ANXIETY = 33%. TUNNEL THEORY ARGUES
THAT WITNESS'S ATTENTION NARROWS TO FOCUS
ON A WEAPON, BECAUSE IT IS A SOURCE OF
ANXIETY
POSITIVE
FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE TRIGGERED IMPROVING OUR ALERTNESS AND MEMORY
OF THE EVENT BECAUSE WE BECOME MORE AWARE OF CUES IN THE SITUATION
JOHN YULIE AND JUDITH CUTSHALL 1986 - STUDY OF A REAL-LIFE
SHOOTING IN A GUN SHOP IN VANCOUVER, CANADA. 13
PARTICIPANTS WHO WHITNESSES SHOP OWNER SHOT. WITNESSES
WERE VERY ACCURAYE AND LITTLE CHANGE AFTER 5 MONTHS
THOUGH SOME DETAILS LESS ACCURAT. HIGH STRESS LEVELS = MOST
ACCURATE
COGNITIVE INTERVIEW
RONALD FISHER AND EDWARD GEISEKMAN (1992)
FOUR MAIN TECHNIQUES: 1. REPORT EVERYTHING (ENCOURAGED TO
INCLUDE EVERY SINGLE DETAIL ) 2. REINSTATE THE CONTEXT (RETURN TO
CRIME SCENE IN THEIR MIND AND IMAGINE ENVIRONMENT AND
EMOTIONS CONTEXT DEPENDENT FORGETTING), 3. REVERSE THE ORDER,
(EVENTS SHOULD BE RECALLED IN DIFFERENT CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER) 4.
CHANGE PERSPECTIVE (RECALLED FROM SOMEONE ELSE'S PERSPECTIVE TO
DISRUPT THE EFFECT OF EXPECTATIONS AND SCHEME ON RECALL.
MISLEADING INFORMATION
ELIZABETH LOFTUS AND JOHN PALMER 1974 - ARRANGED FOR
PARTICIPANTS TO WATCH FILM CLIPS OF CAR ACCIDENTS AND THEN GAVE
THEM QUESTIONS ABOUT THE ACCIDENTS. USED LEADING QUESTION
FROM VERB E.G. 'HIT'. THE MEAN ESTIMATED SPEED WAS CALCULATED FOR
EACH PARTICIPANT GROUP. CONTACTED = 31.8MPH SMASHED = 40.5 MPH.
WHY DO LEADING QUESTIONS EFFECT? - THE RESPONSE BIAS EXPLANATION
SUGGESTS THAT THE WORDING OF THE QUESTION HAS NO REAL EFFECT ON
THE PARTICIPANTS' MEMORIES BUT JUST INFLUENCES HOW THEY DECIDE THE
ANSWER.
POST- EVENT DISCUSSION
TESTIMONIES MAY BECOME CONTAMINATED THROUGH HIS AS
THEY COMBINE INFORMATION FROM OTHER WITNESSES WITH
THEIR OWN MEMORIES
FIONA GABBERT ET AL 2003 - PARTICIPANTS IN PAIRS. WATCHED THE SAME VIDEO OF THE SAME CRIME BUT FROM DIFFERENT
ANGLES LETTING ONE SEE WHAT THE OTHER COULD NOT AND THEN DISCUSSED WHAT THEY HAD SEEN = 71% OF
PARTICIPANTS MISTAKENLY RECALLED ASPECTS OF THE EVENT THAT THEY DID NOT SEE IN THE VIDEO BUT HAD PICKED UP IN
DISCUSSION. - CONTROL GROUP WITH NO DISCUSSION = 0%