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What is meant by the term 'value-free sociology'?	Value-free sociology is sociology that is not influenced by the researcher's own values. The term is synonymous to objectivity.
Many sociologists emphasise the importance of objectivity in research. What makes a statement objective?	A statement is objective if it accurately describes something that exists externally to the person describing it and is true regardless of the individual making the statement.
Positivists believe that the nature of sociological research is no different from that of any of the physical scientists. Why?	Both study a series of phenomena that exist totally independently of the scientists .
These independent phenomena can be measured and classified. As a result, what can be constructed and tested?	Theories.
The 'social facts' positivists refer to are the statistics obtained by direct observation or, where this is impossible, through quantitative methods such as questionnaires. Why do they regard such methods as objective?	Because they are untainted by personal opinion and preference and simply count what exists, prior to the research, in the social world.
Which sociologist argues that personal biases and political opinions of researchers are irrelevant, provided that the research is well designed and there is no attempt to distort or alter the findings?	Julia O'Connell et al.
In line with Popper's ideas on falsification, to ensure that no biases have inadvertently intruded, how does the publication of research methods and findings ensure that research is objective?	The publication will be read, replicated and possibly criticised by other researchers.
What is meant by the term 'value-laden sociology'?	Value-laden sociology is sociology that is influenced by the researcher's own values. The term is synonymous to subjectivity.
Those who believe that sociology is inevitably value-laden have identified four ways in which values enter research. Give examples:	1. Historical context. 2. Paying for research. 3. Career trajectories. 4. Personal beliefs and interests.
Which sociologist pointed out that the argument for value-free sociology is partially based in a particular historical context?	Alvin Gouldner.
Which sociologist has traditionally been associated with the idea that personal and political values should be largely excluded from research?	Max Weber.
How does Gouldner apply the argument that research is affected by the historical context in which it occurs to Weber?	He argued that Weber was writing at a time when the Prussian government was attempting to erase intellectual freedom. He believed that Weber was merely attempting to prevent the government from interfering with sociology by claiming that it was value-free.
Which two sociologist pointed out that the sociology cannot be value-free due to the fact that the person funding it often has an ulterior motive for doing so?	Greg Philo and David Miller.
Philo and Miller argue that, increasingly, all sciences are having their critical researchers silenced. Why is this happening, and what is the result?	There is targeting funding by those who want research to occur, but only if the end result will benefit them. As such, scientists are rewarded for finding certain evidence. However, this means that the evidence produced is often manipulated and therefore not valid.
Gouldner also points out that a sociologist's career goals can result in their research being value-laden. What does he mean by this?	All sociologists want to be published, to be promoted, to become renowned in their field. These desires can intrude, either consciously or subconsciously, into their research activities, making their findings invalid.
What concept does Kuhn apply to this belief?	The concept of paradigms - he states that these career goals can result in sociologists accepting the dominant paradigms of their subject and avoiding breaking out of the status quo.
Finally, it is argued that the personal beliefs of a sociologist will inevitably result in their research being value-laden. Why is this?	Like any other person, sociologists will have opinions, experiences and beliefs about the world around them. While they may try their hardest to avoid letting these values impact their research, it is unlikely - perhaps impossible - that they will be able to shed them altogether.
Gouldner states that all researchers make basic assumptions about social life What term does he use to refer to these assumptions?	"Domain assumptions".
Why can these domain assumptions benefit research?	Without some assumptions, a sociologist wouldn't be able to begin researching a topic.
Why can these domain assumptions negatively impact research?	Assumptions reflect different values about what might be 'true', which can taint researcher.
Similarly, sociologists find particular areas of study 'interesting', and so are drawn to exploring them. However, their interest makes it difficult for them to remain objective. Which sociologist illustrates this?	Ken Plummer, who researched homosexuality and is known for his 'queer theory'. Plummer was open about his sexual identity and how this encouraged him to explore the topic.
Sociologists from which perspective are particularly critical of the belief that rational thinking, based on verifiable evidence, is superior to any other approach in understanding the world?	Postmodernists, such as Jean-François Lyotard and Jean Baudrillard.
Postmodernists argue that scientific thinking is just one of the many possible ways of approaching an understanding of the world and it is not inherently better than any other. According to postmodernists, what is the process of science based on?	Values - all that a sociologist does is derived from a set of values that are no truer than any other set of values.
In writing about their research, postmodernists have adopted two tactics. What are they?	1. Reflexivity (sociologists include information about themselves and their roles when actually constructing the research, which shows how they might have influenced it). 2. Narratives (this refers to the different viewpoints that the research allows to be heard in the research, showing that they are not limiting anyone from putting forward their opinion).
Who puts forward a similar account?	Michel Foucault.
What term does Foucault use to refer to the way people talk and think about particular issues?	"Discourse".
If the discourse favoured by a particular group becomes dominant, what do they also gain control over?	Knowledge.
How is Foucault's argument therefore similar to the argument put forward by postmodernists?	They both argue that the value-free process itself is actually based on a set of values.
A third approach comes from those who believe that sociology shouldn't be value-free but should have some explicit values guiding its approach to study. What term is used to refer to this?	"Committed sociology".
Who are the most avid advocates of committed sociology?	Critical and radical sociologists, such as feminists and marxists.
Critical sociologists don't always agree about the line that critical sociology should take. Some believe that sociology should be sympathetic to the disadvantaged and oppressed. However, what fault can be identified here?	They focus almost entirely on the oppressed and don't pay any attention to those in positions of power who are causing the oppression.
How do other committed sociologists tackle this issue?	They take a more radical approach, focusing specifically on those in power and the structures that allow the inequality to continue.
These differences are reflected in the disagreements between which two sociologists?	Howard Becker (a liberal) and Alvin Gouldner (a radical).
What topic in particular did Becker and Gouldner disagree about?	Deviance.
How did Becker approach the study of deviance?	He used his labelling theory to advocate for the 'underdogs', highlighting how certain groups are unfairly labelled as deviant and subsequently targeted by the forces of social control.
How did Becker approach the study of deviance?	He believed that labelling theory ends up blaming what he calls the 'middle dogs' - groups such as the police who actually have very little power and are merely acting on behalf of their employers. He argued that the study of deviance should focus on the truly powerful groups.
When did the famous debate between Becker and Gouldner occur?	In the 1970s.
Both sociologists agreed that sociology should not be value-free and instead should be committed. However, what question subsequently arose?	Committed sociology needs to take a 'side', meaning they had to decide which side to take.
How did Becker begin the debate?	He stated that sociology had traditionally been on the side of the more powerful and that, in his opinion, that this should change so that the underdogs are given a chance to express their opinions.
By examining issues from the underdog's perspective, what can emerge?	New questions and ways of looking at the issues, potentially leading to solutions.
Why did Gouldner attack Becker for this argument?	Gouldner felt as if Becker had not gone far enough - in fact, he stated that Becker's approach would merely strengthen the status quo. He argued that Becker's work still failed to examine those in the highest positions of power, which is the only way to prompt social change.
Which Marxist sociologist put forward a very similar argument to that of Gouldner?	Louis Althusser.
Althusser argued that the role of sociology is to uncover the ways in which the ruling class control the mass of the population. In doing so, what did he hope to achieve, and how did he believe he would achieve this?	He hoped to achieve the breakdown of capitalism by exposing the truth of how it operates for the benefit of the few.
Why was Althusser's attitude to values in sociology contradictory?	He simultaneously believes that his work was scientific and thus objective while believing that he should try to promote radical change.
Which feminist agreed with the idea of exposing the workings of an oppressive society?	Dale Spender.
However, what did Spender believe was the key to doing this?	Exploring how males dominate and control society (rather than how the ruling class do so, as marxists argue).
Which sociologist identified the four elements of feminist research?	Martyn Hammersley.
What are the four elements of feminist research?	1. It starts with a belief that society is patriarchal. 2. Rather than excluding women's feelings and experiences, it seeks to include them. 3. The division between the researcher and the subject should be broken down so that the subjects are compelled to assist in the study. 4. The overall aim is the emancipation of women - the success of the research should be measured on this basis alone.
Committed sociologists, whether liberal or radical, run the risk of being accused of producing sociology that is little more than personal opinion. According to this viewpoint, sociology has two serious problems. What is the first?	Sociological interpretations of the social world can become so distorted by ideology that they lack any validity.
How does Phil Carspecken deny this accusation?	He argues that critical ethnography can be rigorous and systematic and, just like any other sociologists, critical sociologists should be open to changing their theories if necessary.
The second issue is that it can be argued that it is inappropriate to base sociology on opinions relating to what is right and wrong. Why?	Because these opinions are entirely subjective and no one opinion is any more credible than another. Furthermore, they cannot be tested by any evidence.
How does Andrew Sayer respond to this?	He argues that it is perfectly possible to do research that examines what kind of social arrangements typically support the well-being of the majority. From this point of view, as long as we can agree on some basic values, sociology can play a role in distinguishing what is right and what is wrong.

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