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| Question | Answer |
| 1st law of thermodynamics | Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe |
| free energy (aka as G for Gibbs) | is energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell |
| exergonic reaction | proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous catabolique reaction |
| endergonic reaction | absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is non-spontaneous Anabolique reaction |
| couplage d’énergie | il consiste à employer l’énergie dégagée par une réaction exergonique pour déclencher une réaction endergonique. en grande partie grâce à l’ATP.! |
| The bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP’s tail can be broken by | by hydrolysis |
| ATP is composed of | of ribose (sugar), adenine (nitrogenous base), and 3 phosphate groups |
| ATP drives endergonic reactions by | phosphorylation, transferring a phosphate group to some other molecule, such as a reactant |
| A ribozyme is | a catalytic RNA, e.g. the self- splicing of rRNA |
| Induced fit of a substrate | brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction |
| Inorganic cofactors | are often metals (Zn, Cu, Fe in ionic form) |
| Organic cofactor are called | are called coenzymes, which are often vitamins (e.g. Vitamin B3àNAD+) |
| Competitive inhibitors | bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate |
| Noncompetitive inhibitors | bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective |
| Sarin gas inhibits | acetyl-cholinesterase, an enzyme in the CNS |
| Penicillin | blocks enzymes that synthesizes bacterial cell walls |
| Examples of inhibitors | toxins, poisons, pesticides, and antibiotics |
| Allosteric regulation | can be considered reversible non-competitive inhibition/activation |
| Cooperativity in allosteric regulation | is a form of allosteric regulation that can amplify enzyme activity (e.g. O2 & Hb) |
| (cysteine-aspartic proteases) may help management of | Inflammatory responses - e.g. IL-1β Converting Enzyme (ICE = caspase 1) and Apoptosis |
| In feedback inhibition | the end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway preventing the cell from wasting chemical resources |
| In oxidation | a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized (the amount of positive charge is induced) |
| In reduction | a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced) |
| • CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through microscopic pores called | stomata |
| Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the | mesophyll, the interior tissue of the leaf |
| The chlorophyll is in the membranes of | thylakoids (connected sacs in the chloroplast); thylakoids may be stacked in columns called grana |
| • Chloroplasts also contain | stroma, a dense fluid |
| The light reactions (in the thylakoids): | – SplitH2O – ReleaseO2 – Reduce NADP+ to NADPH – GenerateATPfromADPby photophosphorylation |
| carotenoids | Accessory pigments called carotenoids absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll |
| photoprotection | d |
| phytochemicals | Plants synthesize all protective molecules themselves 2. Animals must get them through diet |
| Chlorophyll a vs chlorophyll b | 1.Chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic pigment 2.Accessory pigments, such as chlorophyll b, broaden the spectrum used for photosynthesis |
| Theodor W. Engelmann(1843-1901) | discovered positive aerotaxis and the action spectrum of photosynthesis by using a modified microscope made by Carl Zeiss. |
| 1.Porphyrin ring: | 1.light-absorbing “head” of molecule; note magnesium atom at center (an inorganic cofactor) |
| 2.Hydrocarbon tail: | 2.interacts with hydrophobic regions of proteins inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts; H atoms not shown |
| The light-harvesting complexes | (pigment molecules bound to proteins) funnel the energy of photons to the reaction center |
| a reaction-center complex | A photosystem consists of a reaction-center complex (a type of protein complex) surrounded by light-harvesting complexes |
| A primary electron acceptor in the reaction center accepts | A primary electron acceptor in the reaction center accepts an excited electron from chlorophyll a |
| Photosystem II (PS II) | PS II) functions first (the numbers reflect order of discovery) and is best at absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm. The reaction- center chlorophyll a of PS II is called P680 |
| Photosystem I | (PS I) is best at absorbing a wavelength of 700 nm. The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS I is called P700 |
| Cyclic electron flow only | 1. uses PSI 2.It can also occur in species with both PSII and PSI 3. |
| Chemiosmosis is | Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. More specifically, it relates to the generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis. |
| Fats and carbohydrates are | Are reservoirs of electrons associated to hydrogen, these hydrogene bonds are a source of hilltop electrons |
| NAD+ functions as an | As an electron accepter thus it is the oxidizing agent during cellular respiration |
| What is the reduced form of NAD+ | It is NADH, and each NADH represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesise ATP |
| What is the full name of NADplus | Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), and its a coenzyme |
| Pellagra is caused by what and what are its symptoms | Vitamin b3 deficiency and the symptoms are Dermatitis, Diarrhea, Dementia, and evtl. Death |
| What are the three stages of cellular respiration | 1. Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate) 2. The citric acid cycle (completesthe breakdown of glucose) 3. Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis) |
| The process that generates most of the ATP is called | oxidative phosphorylation because it is powered by redox reactions |
| A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by | by substrate-level phosphorylation |
| what is derived form Vitamin b3 | NAD+ is derived from vitamin B3 (aka as niacin) |
| prosthetic groups | r |
| FAD is derived from | from riboflavin or vitamin B2 |
| A signal Transduction Pathway is | a series of steps |
| What is quorum sensing ? | When bacteria secrete signaling molecules so that other bacteria can detect population density |
| How does the hormone Epinephrine work ? | By stimulating gylcogen breakdown by activating glycogen phosphorylase |
| What type of signals are growth factors | Local signaling types : Paracrine |
| Name a type of long distance signaling | Hormonal or endocrine signaling and an example is epinepherine |
| How do paracrine and synaptic signaling work ? | Paracrine uses diffusion and synaptic uses electrical signals |
| Most water soluble molecules bind to specific sites on what ? | Of receptor proteins that are in the plasma membrane |
| Name the diseases that GPCRS are involved with | 1.Cholera 2.Hypertension 3.Asthma |
| What are pertusis toxins | s |
| Which guanine molecule turns a GProtein on | GTP |
| How does Adenyl cyclase act as a GTP-ase in its transduction pathway | It removes a phosphate from the GTP rendering the protein to which this GTP was coupled inactive |
| Possibles Cause of Cancer related to GPCRs : | 1.Enzyme in transduction pathway doesnt remove a phosphate group from the Gprotein |
| Name GTp-ase enzymes | 1.G protein 2. Adenyl.Cyclase |
| What does a Kinase enzyme do ? | Catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups |
| About 30 percent of breast cancers are due to | The RTK receptor named HER2 being overexpressed causing the cell to divide faster |
| Are all hormones hydrophobic | NO |
| What are transcription factors and why do we talk about them when explaining nuclear recptors | Transcritption factors control which genes are turned on and transcribed into mRNA . We say nuclear receptors are turned into transcription factors when certain hormones bind to them |
| Receptor for neurotransmitters fall into what category of Receptors | LGICS |
| Give examples of LGICS | 1.Receptor for Acetylcholine 2.Receptor for Serotonin 3.Receptor for Glutamate 3. Receptor for Etanol |
| The RTK drug Bevacimab or avastin binds to VEGF to cure what diseases ? | IT cures colorectal cancer and wet age related Macular Degeneration AMD |
| 15% of currently used drugs target what type of receptor | Target NRs |
| How is Helix 12 affected in an induced fit | It is repositioned upon ligand binding so that it can dock coactivaters and activate transcription : This is what we call an Induced Fit |
| What are Tamoxifen and Flutamide ? and what are they used for | They are NR antagonists that keep the NR in its inactive conformation and they are used to cure Breast cancer and Prostate Cancer respectively. |
| How big is an Ion Channel | The top is 6nm and the intermembrain part is 3nm and the cytoplasma part is 2nm (just remember the 6nm and the rest is two numbers multiplied that give you 6(3,2)) |
| How wide is the opening of an ion Channel | 2nm |
| How wide is the Whole ion channel (circumference) | 9nm ! |
| What gives birth to a fat cell | A fibroblastlike procuseur cell (its catalized by PPAy (a NR)) |
| Multistep pathways provide more opportunities for | Coordination and regulation |
| What is biofillm an example of? | h |
| What are Pases | Protein phosphatases, and they dephosphorylate proteins |
| What is most likely wrong in men with Prostate cancer | Its that the protein PIP3 pathway doesnt receive the Feedback inhibition it needs to stop so it keeps on going hence the cancer. PIP3 pase is mutant in 70% of men with P.Cancer |
| Protein Kinases most often phosphorylate what and how much of our genome is codes for these P.Ks | 2% of our genese code for these PKs and they phosphorylate other proteins and, Serine and Threonine residues mostly |
| How do caffeine and theophyline act on the signal transduction pathway | They completely inhibit Phosphodiesterases which means no one is degrading the cAMP now, and the same messages get sent over and over again |
| Apoptosis may be involved in deseases such as | Parkinsons and Alzheimer |
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