Martini Chapter 2 - Part 1

Chemical Organisation
1. Atoms - Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
2. Elements and their isotopes
3. Atomic weight
4. Moles
5. Electrons and Shells
  1. Each shell has different energy levels
  2. the outer shell is the valence shell
  3. the number of electrons in the outer shell determine the chemical properties of the element
Chemical Bonding
1. Ionic bonds
  1. cations - positive ions
  2. anions - negative ions
  3. form from the attraction between cations and anions, the anion donates electron(s) to the cation
2. Covalent bonds
  1. atoms share electrons
  2. single, double and triple bonds exist
  3. non polar covalent bonds - the elections sit half way between the 2 atoms as there is an equal attraction
  4. polar covalent bonds - the electrons are pulled closer to one of the atoms as they have a stronger pull from the nucleus
3. hydrogen bonds
  1. the attraction between a polar hydrogen atom in a molecule and the negatively polar atom in another molecule, the most common atom is oxygen which has is negatively polar
4. states of matter
  1. solids, liquids and gases
5. molecular weights
  1. sum of atomic weights
Chemical reactions in physiology
1. Basic Energy Concepts
  1. Kinetic - energy of motion
  2. Potential - stored energy
2. Types of Chemical Reactions
  1. Decomposition
    1. breaking a molecule into it constituents
    2. hydrolysis is a common form of decomposition
    3. catobolism - decomposition of complex molecules in the body's cells and tissues
  2. Synthesis
    1. the opposite of decomposition, it forms a molecule using its constituents
    2. dehydration synthesis is sythesis by the removal of a water molecule
    3. anabolism - synthesis of complex molecules in the body's cells and tissues
  3. Exchange
    1. parts of 2 reacting molecules are shuffled around to form new products
  4. Reversible
    1. reactions that can happen both ways
    2. they rest at equilibrium where both reactions are happening at a constant level
Enzymes
1. lower the activation energy
2. act as catalysts
3. speeds up the rate of the reaction
4. exergonic - reactions that release energy
5. endergonic - reactions that use up energy
Systems dependant on water
1. Solubility
  1. many organic and inorganic molecules are soluble
  2. solution - the mixture of particles and water
  3. solvent - the liquid e.g. water
  4. solute - the particle that is dissolved in the solvent
2. Reactivity
  1. many reactions take place in water
  2. many reactions use water
3. High Heat Capacity
  1. ability to absorb and retain heat
  2. water has a high heat capacity because of its hydrogen bonding
4. Lubrication
  1. there is little friction between water molecules
5. Properties of Aqueous Solutions
  1. water molecules are polar
  2. in water ionic bonds are broken or dissociated/ionised
  3. ionised solutions contain the anions and cations of the orginal molecule
  4. Electrolytes and Body Fluids
    1. electrolytes - soluble inorganic ions that conduct electricity in solution
    2. changes in concentrations of electrolytes effects body fluids and every vital function
    3. concentrations of ions are regulated by the kidneys (ion excretion), the digestive tract (ion absorption) and the skeletal system (ion storage or release)
  5. hydrophilic
  6. Hydrophilic and phobic Compounds
    1. polar covalent bonds attract water molecules
    2. hydration spheres form carry these molecules into solution
    3. non polar molecules can't form the hydration sphere so don't dissolve they are hydrophobic
  7. Colloids and Suspensions
    1. A solution containing proteins and other large molecules is called a colloid.
    2. the particles in a colloid will remain in solution indefinitely.
    3. A suspension contains large particles that settle out of the solution by the force of gravity
Body Fluid pH
1. Hydrogen ions can break chemical bonds and change the shape of complex molecules and distrupt cell and tissue functions
2. Hydrogen ion concentration must be strictly regulated
3. the pH is -log10[hydrogen ion concentration]
4. pH 7 is neutral
5. pH<7 is acidic
6. pH>7 is alkaline
7. blood pH is between 7.35 and 7.45
8. blood pH of less than 7.35 is acidosis and below 7 causes a coma and then death
9. blood pH of more than 7.45 is alkalosis, above 7.8 causes uncontrollable skeletal muscle spasms
Acids, Bases and salts physiological roles
1. A weak acid only partically dissociates in solution
2. A strong acid fully dissociates in solution
3. Weak acids and bases form equilibriums
4. Salts
  1. A salt is an ionic compound containing any cation excluding hydrogen ions and any anion excluding hydroxide ions
  2. salts dissociate in water into their respective cation and anion
5. Buffers and pH control
  1. Buffers resist any changes in pH by removing or adding hydrogen ions
  2. Buffers form from a weak acid and its conjugate base

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Martini Chapter 2 - Part 1

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