Introduction to Philosophy

Why are these terms important?

When evaluating any philosophical argument, it is vital to consider the type of logic or school of thought the philosopher is using. 

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Epistemology vs. Scepticism

Epistemology is a theory of knowledge, esp. in regard to its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction between justified belief and opinion. The word is derived from the Greek word 'episteme' (knowledge). It states that knowledge claims can be justifed, and that knowledge is worth pursuing and obtaining. Two key epistemological philosophers include Plato and Aristotle.

Scepticism is the theory that certain knowledge is impossible to obtain. The word is derived from the Greek word 'skepsis' (doubt). It states that there is no justification for any claims to knowledge and knowledge is ultimately unobtainable.  Two key sceptical thinkers include Descartes and Hume.

Epistemological Thought

Rationalism Knowledge is obtained by reason. Reasoning takes place in the mind. Mathematics is an example of an appeal to a merely logical process. The world is reducible to elements that can be understood with logic. Associated with Plato

Empiricism Knowledge is gained through experience. Experience is gained through the senses. Scientific enquiry usually follows an empirical method. In order to discover anything, you must observe the world around you.  Associated with Aristotle 

A Theological Alternative

Religious believers may reject both epistemology and scepticism in favour of revelation.  Revelation is the concept that knowledge is imparted by God to the faithful, either through a religious experience, (e.g. vision, sensing God's presence) or through sacred writings/texts (e.g. the Bible).

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Deductive and Inductive Reason

Deductive Reasoning starts with a general statement or hypothesis examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion links premises with conclusions If all the premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is necessarily true. If something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all members of that class. Example: All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal.

Inductive Reasoning constructs or evaluates general propositions that are derived from specific examples inductive arguments are concerned with the probability of conclusions, rather than being necessarily correct even if all the premises are true, it is possible, in inductive reasoning for the conclusion to be false Example: Most people are taller than 2 feet. Gareth is a person. Therefore, Gareth is likely to be taller than 2 feet.

Evaluating Deductive and Inductive

Deductive:Strengths:If all the premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is necessarily true.Weaknesses:If it is unclear whether the premises of the argument is true, it isn't clear whether the conclusion is correct. (e.g. Ontological Argument says that God is most perfect, lacking existence makes you less than perfect, so God must exist. However, it is difficult to prove that God is definitely the most perfect - does God even exist, or is God just a misguided theological concept?

Inductive:Strengths: We can be sure that the premises of the argument (specific examples) are true. It focusses on the probability of the conclusion being true, not that it definitely is true. Weaknesses:Specific examples cannot represent the general nature of things. (It is possible for inductive reasoning to be wrong, even if the premises are true).

A Priori and A Posteriori

A priori A statement is considered to be a priori if it is true or false without the need for observation and can be known through reason alone. Prior means before. Example:If George V reigned for at least four days, then he reigned for more than three days.

A posteriori A statement is considered to be a posteriori if it is true or false with the need for observation, that cannot be known through reason alone. Post means after. Example:George V reigned from 1910 to 1936.

Evaluating A Priori and A Posteriori

A PrioriStrengths:A priori knowledge is easy to obtain and accessible to everyone, regardless of what they experience. Weaknesses:No empirical evidence to support reasoning.

A PosterioriStrengths:It is superior to a priori knowledge, because it uses what we experience as evidence for our reasoning.Weaknesses: Our experiences can be wrong, because how we perceive events is not how they actually happen. e.g) Kant spoke about causality - that we see the world in terms of cause and effect, because we simply cannot comprehend things happening in any other way. This is not to say that this is exactly how things happen.e.g) Both Plato and Descartes were rationalist thinkers who rejected the use of the senses. Descartes famously said, 'My senses lie to me. They make straight sticks in water look bent.'

Analytic and Synthetic Statements

Analytic statements are true by definition and need no evidence to suggest this. Synthetic statements are true depending on what we can observe empirically, and are probably true. Read moreSummary

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Analogous Logic

Analogical - makes a comparison between two things for the purpose of explanation or clarification. Strengths:Analogies help to illustrate reasoning and can be used as evidence for conclusions.Weaknesses:Just because two things are similar, it doesn't mean that they are the same. (e.g. a watch and the universe are different - mechanical and natural)

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